Orthodox Christianity Final Study Guide
Vocabulary:
1. Trinitarian controversies: Discussions surrounding the nature of the Trinity, including debates about the relationship between the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
2. Nicene Creed: Formulation of the Nicene Creed during the First Council of Nicaea in 325 to address Arianism and establish orthodox Trinitarian doctrine.
3. Influence of Constantine: Constantine's role in favoring Christianity and convening the First Council of Nicaea.
4. Arianism: Arianism's assertion that Jesus was a created being and subordinate to God, led to conflicts within the Christian community.
5. Theological controversies: Further debates about the nature of Christ, including discussions on his dual nature (human and divine).
6. Ecumenical councils: Convening of councils such as the Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451 to address theological disputes and establish orthodoxy.
7. Nestorianism vs. Monophysitism: Controversies surrounding the nature of Christ's humanity and divinity, with Nestorianism advocating for a distinction between the two natures and Monophysitism asserting a single nature.
8. Theotokos: The title "Theotokos" (Mother of God) was affirmed at the Council of Ephesus to emphasize the unity of Christ's person.
9. Iconoclasm controversy: The debate over the veneration of religious icons, with iconoclasts opposing their use and iconodules supporting their veneration.
10. Orthodoxy: The established doctrine or beliefs of a religious faith, particularly referring to the Eastern Orthodox Church.
11. Monophysite: Belief in the doctrine that Christ has only one nature, rather than two distinct natures (human and divine).
12. Maphysite: Another term for Monophysite, emphasizing the singular nature of Christ.
13. Diaphysite: Belief in the doctrine of two natures of Christ, both human and divine.
14. Iconoclast: A person who opposes the veneration or use of religious icons.
15. Iconodule: A person who supports the veneration or use of religious icons.
16. Latreia: Worship, particularly reserved for God.
17. Proskinesis: Veneration or homage, distinct from worship.
18. The Great Canon of St. Andrew of Crete: A long poetic series of hymns and stories of sinners and saints, used during Lent in the Eastern Orthodox Church.
19. Eremetic (hermit)
Cenobitic (community-based life – in monasteries)
People:
1. St. Antony:
- Description: A prominent figure in early Christian monasticism, known for his ascetic lifestyle and spiritual wisdom.
- Significance: St. Antony's life and teachings inspired many to pursue monasticism, and he is often regarded as a model for asceticism within the Orthodox tradition.
2. Martin Luther:
- Description: A German monk, theologian, and key figure in the Protestant Reformation.
- Significance: Luther's criticisms of the Catholic Church led to significant theological and ecclesiastical reforms, including the emphasis on salvation by faith alone and the authority of scripture.
3. John Calvin:
- Description: A French theologian and pastor who played a crucial role in the development of Protestantism, particularly the Reformed tradition.
- Significance: Calvin's teachings, including the concept of predestination, shaped Protestant theology and had a lasting impact on the formation of various Protestant denominations.
4. Constantine: Roman Emperor who played a significant role in the early Christian Church, particularly in convening the First Council of Nicaea.
5. Ignatius: Early Christian theologian and Church Father, known for his writings on theology and martyrdom.
6. St. John of Damascus: Theologian and monk known for his defense of icons and contributions to Byzantine hymnography.
7. St. Antony: Considered the father of Christian monasticism, known for his ascetic lifestyle and influence on later monastic traditions.
Theories:
1. Nicene Orthodoxy: The theological position established at the Council of Nicaea, affirming the divinity of Christ and rejecting Arianism.
2. Dual nature of Christ: The belief in the two distinct natures of Christ, both human and divine, which was affirmed at the Council of Chalcedon.
3. Iconoclasm vs. Iconodule: The theological debate over the use and veneration of religious icons, which was resolved in favor of iconodules at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787.
4. Evolution of Christian Doctrine: Examination of how 4th and 5th-century creeds reflect early Christian understandings, with some scholars arguing for continuity and others noting significant changes.
5. Varieties of Christianity: Recognition of diverse interpretations and practices within Christianity, including debates between different theological factions.
6. Orthodox Church's Self-Understanding: Assertion of the Orthodox Church's continuity in fundamental beliefs and values, despite historical developments and theological debates.
7. Role of Ecumenical Councils: Acknowledgment of the high authority of ecumenical councils in defining beliefs, establishing canonical order, and resolving theological disputes within the Christian Church.
8. Iconography and Incarnation: Connection between the use of icons in worship and the affirmation of the Incarnation, with theological justifications for their veneration.
9. Lenten Practices: Description of Lent as a period of repentance, forgiveness, and spiritual discipline within the Christian tradition, including specific prayers and rituals.
10. Sola Scriptura:
- Definition: The Protestant doctrine that the Bible alone is the ultimate source of authority for Christian faith and practice, rejecting the authority of tradition and church hierarchy.
- Significance: Sola Scriptura emphasizes the importance of individual interpretation of scripture and played a central role in the Protestant Reformation.
11. Predestination:
- Definition: The belief, particularly associated with John Calvin, that God has already determined the fate of individuals, including their salvation or damnation.
- Significance: Predestination challenges traditional views of free will and underscores the sovereignty of God in the salvation of believers.
12. Counter-Reformation:
- Definition: The Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation, characterized by efforts to reform and revitalize the Church from within.
- Significance: The Counter-Reformation led to significant changes within the Catholic Church, including the Council of Trent and the founding of new religious orders like the Jesuits.
Concepts:
1. Monasticism:
- Definition: A religious way of life characterized by the practice of renouncing worldly pursuits to fully dedicate oneself to spiritual work within a monastery or a similar community.
- Significance: Monasticism has played a vital role in the Orthodox Christian tradition, preserving theological writings, practicing asceticism, and serving as a spiritual guide for monastics and laypeople.
- Types of monasticism: eremetic (solitary, “desert”, hermit/anchorite → remote places); cenobitic (communities in a monastery, St. Pachomius, Egypt); skete (middle ground, will live in solitary but come together periodically in the monastic community and then return to solitude)
St. Mary of Egypt (4th cen.) – lived a life far away from god until she wanted to go to church and felt an invisible force barring her from going but then she saw a vision of Mary and was compelled into a life of asceticism in the desert
Elizabeth the New Martyr died in the Bolshevik revolution
Stylites: monks that life in towers
St. Catherine’s in Sinai, Egypt
Monastery in Stoudios (Constantinople): Stoudios was a monk of the monastery of Constantinople
2. Asceticism:
- Definition: The practice of severe self-discipline and abstention from indulgence, often for religious reasons.
- Significance: Ascetic practices are central to Orthodox Christian spirituality, emphasizing the discipline of the body and mind to achieve spiritual growth and closeness to God.
3. Holy Fools (Iurodstvo):
- Definition: Individuals who adopt unconventional behaviors, often appearing foolish or eccentric, as a means of spiritual expression or protest against societal norms.
- Significance: Holy Fools challenge conventional wisdom and social norms, serving as a reminder of humility and the potential for spiritual transformation.
4. Tollhouse Theory:
- Definition: A metaphorical belief within some Orthodox Christian traditions that the soul, after death, passes through a series of "tollhouses" where it is judged for its actions and encounters demonic forces before reaching its final destination.
- Significance: The Tollhouse Theory illustrates the Orthodox understanding of the afterlife and the importance of moral conduct during earthly life.
5. Unia:
- Definition: The term refers to the Eastern Christian Churches that entered into communion with the Roman Catholic Church while still maintaining their own liturgical rites and traditions.
- Significance: Unia churches represent attempts at reconciliation between Eastern and Western Christianity but also highlight the complexities of theological and ecclesiastical divisions.
The Development of Christian Doctrine: The creeds formulated in the 4th and 5th centuries reflect significant changes from early Christian understandings, with terms like Homoousios and Homoiousios emerging to define the relationship between Jesus and God.
Orthodox Church's Self-Understanding: The Orthodox Church asserts continuity in fundamental beliefs and values, maintaining that the gospel handed down by Christ remains unchanged despite historical developments and theological debates.
Varieties of Christianity: Early Christianity exhibited diverse interpretations and practices, including sects like Gnosticism and Marcionism, which held differing views on the nature of God and Jesus.
Iconoclasm Controversy: The debate over the veneration of religious icons led to conflicts between iconoclasts and iconodules, with councils like the Second Council of Nicaea (787) ultimately affirming the legitimacy of icons in worship.
Monasticism: Monasticism played a significant role in early Christianity, with monks and ascetics contributing to theological discourse and spiritual practices. Monastic communities emerged in various forms, such as eremetic, cenobitic, and skete.
Repose and Resurrection in Greek Orthodox Beliefs:
- Significance: In Orthodox theology, death is not seen as the end but as a transition to eternal life. The concept of "repose" refers to the peaceful passing of a person's soul from this life to the next. This belief is deeply rooted in the Orthodox understanding of resurrection, where Christ's victory over death offers hope for the faithful. The emphasis on resurrection underscores the Orthodox view of the human person as body and soul, with both being redeemed and united with God in the final resurrection.
The Role of the Jesus Prayer and Hesychasm in Continuous Prayer:
- Significance: Hesychasm, a tradition of inner stillness and prayer, is central to Orthodox spirituality. The Jesus Prayer, "Lord Jesus Christ, have mercy on me, a sinner," is a powerful mantra used to achieve continuous prayer and union with God. This practice emphasizes the importance of simplicity, humility, and silence in communing with the Divine. It reflects Orthodox teachings on theosis, the process of becoming like God through participation in His divine energies.
Spread of Christianity to Slavic Lands and Motivations for Conversion:
- Significance: The conversion of Slavic peoples to Christianity played a crucial role in shaping the cultural and religious landscape of Eastern Europe. Missionary efforts, such as those led by Cyril and Methodius, introduced the Orthodox faith and Cyrillic alphabet to the Slavic world. The motivations for conversion, including political alliances, Byzantine prestige, and the unifying nature of Christian doctrine, highlight the interconnectedness of religion and politics in medieval societies.
Reformation Principles and Impact on Western Christianity:
- Significance: The Protestant Reformation challenged the authority and practices of the Catholic Church, leading to doctrinal changes and religious schisms in Western Christianity. Concepts like sola scriptura (scripture alone), sola fide (faith alone), and sola gratia (grace alone) questioned traditional Catholic teachings on salvation and authority. While the Reformation primarily affected Western Christianity, its principles prompted theological reflection and dialogue within Orthodox circles.
Counter-Reformation Efforts by the Catholic Church:
- Significance: In response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church initiated the Counter-Reformation to address internal reforms and combat Protestant influence. The Council of Trent and the establishment of the Jesuit order were key components of this effort. The Counter-Reformation aimed to reaffirm Catholic doctrine, strengthen ecclesiastical authority, and address perceived abuses within the Church.
Limited Implications of the Reformation on Orthodoxy and Subsequent Responses:
- Significance: While the Reformation had minimal direct impact on Orthodoxy, it prompted Orthodox theologians to engage in dialogue with Protestant ideas and defend Orthodox doctrine. Efforts such as the Unia agreements and confessionalization demonstrate Orthodox responses to Protestant influence. Additionally, educational advancements were made to counter Protestant missionary efforts in historically Orthodox regions.
Filioque controversy: Theological argument - the filioque controversy is a pretext for the final split (over the issue of the holy spirit proceeds from the father alone (orthodox) or the father and the son (roman catholic)
Debates by century:
4th Century:
- Trinitarian controversies: Discussions surrounding the nature of the Trinity, including debates about the relationship between the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
- Nicene Creed: Formulation of the Nicene Creed during the First Council of Nicaea in 325 to address Arianism and establish orthodox Trinitarian doctrine.
- Influence of Constantine: Constantine's role in favoring Christianity and convening the First Council of Nicaea.
- Arianism: Arianism's assertion that Jesus was a created being and subordinate to God, leading to conflicts within the Christian community.
5th Century:
- Theological controversies: Further debates about the nature of Christ, including discussions on his dual nature (human and divine).
- Ecumenical councils: Convening of councils such as the Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451 to address theological disputes and establish orthodoxy.
- Nestorianism vs. Monophysitism: Controversies surrounding the nature of Christ's humanity and divinity, with Nestorianism advocating for a distinction between the two natures and Monophysitism asserting a single nature.
- Theotokos: The title "Theotokos" (Mother of God) was affirmed at the Council of Ephesus to emphasize the unity of Christ's person.
6th-8th Centuries:
- Iconoclasm controversy: The debate over the veneration of religious icons, with iconoclasts opposing their use and iconodules supporting their veneration.
- Ecumenical councils addressing iconoclasm: Councils such as the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 reaffirming the use of icons in worship and condemning iconoclasm.
- Political and theological implications: The iconoclasm controversy reflects broader tensions between religious and political authorities, as well as theological differences within the Christian community.
Greek Orthodox Funeral Chants:
- Repose signifies death and belief in the resurrection.
- Jesus' ascension implies that he is not known as a disembodied spirit.
- Ultimate resurrection and judgment day are key beliefs.
- The assumption of Mary's death indicates a unique event at her repose.
- Tollhouse Theory:
- Patristic tradition suggests that the soul goes through tollhouses after death to account for life's deeds.
- Not universally accepted among Orthodox Christians.
- Popularized by Father Seraphim Rose, a monastic figure.
Feast of Annunciation (March 25th):
- Marked by the announcement of the Gospel message, where Angel Gabriel informs Mary about giving birth to Christ.
- Occurs during Lent, with specific fasting traditions.
- Symbolizes the beginning of the Incarnation narrative.
The Way of the Pilgrim":
- A 19th-century text detailing the spiritual journey of a wandering pilgrim seeking to pray without ceasing.
- Centers on the practice of the Jesus Prayer ("Lord Jesus Christ, have mercy on me, a sinner") and its role in achieving continuous prayer.
- Advocates for hesychasm, a tradition of inner stillness and prayer, associated with the Jesus Prayer.
- Highlights the importance of spiritual elders and guidance to avoid prelest (spiritual delusion).
Hesychasm:
- Involves somatic, mental, and spiritual methods of prayer.
- Emphasizes silence, listening, and focusing solely on the prayer.
- Warns against embarking on the practice without proper spiritual guidance to avoid pitfalls such as prelest.
-Spread of Christianity to Slavic Lands:
- Missionary efforts commissioned by rulers facilitated the expansion of Eastern Christianity.
- Key missions include those to Greater Moravia, Bulgaria, and Rus (Ukraine/Russia).
- Motivations for conversion include political alliances, Byzantine prestige, and Christian doctrines of rulership.
- Methods range from missionary preaching to syncretism and coexistence with pre-Christian traditions.
- Reformation:
- Initiated by figures like Martin Luther and John Calvin in the 16th century.
- Key principles include sola gratia, sola fide, and sola scriptura, challenging Catholic doctrines like indulgences and the authority of the Pope.
- Led to the fragmentation of Western Christianity and the Counter-Reformation efforts by the Catholic Church, including the Council of Trent and the establishment of the Jesuit order.
- Limited direct impact on Orthodoxy, but prompted dialogue and educational advancements to counter Protestant influence.