The Enlightenment and Revolutions

The Enlightenment

  • The Enlightenment (17th-18th centuries): A period emphasizing reason, individualism, and freedom, challenging traditional authority.
    • Focus on reason over tradition.
    • Emphasis on individualism over community values.
    • Ideals of freedom and self-determination.
    • Challenged roles of monarchs and church leaders.
    • Planted seeds of revolution (e.g., in the U.S., France).

An Age of New Ideas

  • Optimism and Progress: Belief in applying reason to natural laws for societal progress.
    • Grew from the Scientific Revolution and Renaissance humanism.
    • Emphasis on human accomplishments in understanding the natural world without necessarily denying God.
    • Belief that natural laws govern social and political spheres.
    • Traditional religion became less pervasive.
  • Emergence of New Schools of Thought: Rise of socialism and liberalism, leading to the era being called the "Age of Isms."
    • Socialism and liberalism emerged.
    • Conservatism opposed these, especially among European ruling classes.
  • Clash of Ideas and Political Structures: Revolutions aimed at independence from imperial powers and constitutional representation.
    • Revolutions sought independence and constitutional representation.
    • Breakup of empires and new government forms followed.
  • Nationalism: Intense loyalty to a shared language and culture.
    • Concept of independent nation-states for those sharing a culture.
    • Threatened multiethnic empires in Europe.

New Ideas and Their Roots

  • Empiricism (Francis Bacon): Knowledge from sensed experience and observation.
    • Emphasis on observation and experiments.
    • Rejection of tradition or religion as the sole basis of knowledge.
  • Social Contract Theory (Hobbes and Locke): Political life as the result of an agreement between people and their government.
    • Thomas Hobbes: Argued for a strong central government in exchange for law and order (Leviathan, 1651).
      • People's natural state is bleak and short.
      • Social contract involves giving up some rights.
    • John Locke: Advocated for citizens' right to revolt against unjust government (Two Treatises of Government, 1690).
      • People have natural rights to life, liberty, and property.
      • Citizens have the responsibility to revolt against unjust government.
    • Tabula Rasa (Locke): The idea that the mind is a "blank slate" at birth, shaped by environment and education (An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690).
      • Radical idea challenging the belief that intelligence and personality are determined by ancestry.
      • Emphasized the importance of environment and education.
  • The Philosophes: 18th-century thinkers who popularized social, political, and economic theories.
    • Included Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Adam Smith, and French thinkers.
    • Popularized concepts from 17th-century scientific thinkers.
    • Baron Montesquieu: Advocated for checks on power and separation of powers (The Spirit of Laws, 1748).
      • Praised the British government's use of checks on power.
      • Influenced the American system of executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
    • Voltaire: Known for social satire and advocacy of civil liberties.
      • Advocated for religious liberty and judicial reform.
      • Influenced the U.S. Constitution.
    • Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Expanded on the social contract and the concept of the General Will.
      • Emile, or On Education (1762): Rousseau's work on education.
      • The Social Contract (1762): Rousseau's work on the general will of a population.
      • Inspired revolutionaries with his belief in societal improvement.
  • Adam Smith: Advocated for free trade and laissez-faire economics (The Wealth of Nations, 1776).
    • Advocated for reduced government intervention in economic decisions.
    • The "invisible hand" of the market guides choices beneficial for society.
    • Provided foundations for capitalism.
    • Capitalism: Economic system with privately owned means of production.
  • Deism: Belief in a divinity that set natural laws in motion but does not interfere.
    • Divinity compared to a watchmaker.
    • Understanding through scientific inquiry rather than the Bible.
    • Regular church attendance viewed as a social obligation.
  • Thomas Paine: Defended Deism and advocated for liberty.
    • The Age of Reason (1794): Paine's defense of Deism.
    • Common Sense (1776): Advocated for American liberty.

The Age of New Ideas Continues

  • Reactions to Social Ills: Enlightenment thinkers responded to problems caused by urbanization and industrialization.
    • Increased poverty, poor sanitation, and lack of political representation.
    • Conservatives blamed the poor themselves.
    • Conservatism: Belief in traditional institutions and practical experience over ideological theories.
  • Utopian Socialism: Belief in setting up ideal communities with public or direct worker ownership.
    • Henri de Saint-Simon: Advocated for scientists and engineers working with businesses.
      • Proposed public works like the Suez Canal.
    • Charles Fourier: Encouraged passions to make work enjoyable.
      • Believed in harmonious living in communities.
    • Robert Owen: Established intentional communities with communal ownership and education for workers.
      • New Lanark, Scotland, and New Harmony, Indiana.
    • Fabian Society: Gradual socialists favoring reform through parliamentary means.
      • Prominent members: H. G. Wells, Virginia Woolf, and George Bernard Shaw.
  • Classical Liberalism: Belief in natural rights, constitutional government, laissez-faire economics, and reduced government spending.
    • Advocated for changes in Parliament to reflect population patterns.
    • Backed Reform Bills of 1832, 1867, and 1884.
  • Feminism: Movement for women's rights and equality based on Enlightenment ideas.
    • Olympe de Gouges: Fought for women's rights during the French Revolution.
      • Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the (Female) Citizen (1791).
    • Mary Wollstonecraft: Argued for equal education for women.
      • A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792).
      • Advocated for women's political and professional participation.
  • Abolitionism: Movement to end the Atlantic slave trade and slavery.
    • Slave trading banned earlier than slavery itself.
    • Denmark (1803), Great Britain (1807), and the United States (1808) were among the first to ban the slave trade.
    • Slavery abolished within 30 years of the end of the slave trade in most parts of the Americas.
    • Brazil was the last country in the Americas to end slavery (1888).
  • End of Serfdom: Decline of serfdom due to economic changes and peasant revolts.
    • Queen Elizabeth I abolished serfdom in 1574.
    • The French government abolished feudal rights in 1789.
    • Alexander II of Russia abolished serfdom in 1861.
    • Russian emancipation of 23 million serfs.
  • Zionism: Desire of Jews to reestablish an independent homeland.
    • Response to anti-Semitism and pogroms.
    • Theodor Herzl led the movement.
    • Increased support after the Dreyfus Affair.
    • Modern country of Israel founded in 1948.
    • Dreyfus Affair: Scandal in France where Alfred Dreyfus was wrongly convicted due to anti-Semitism.

Nationalism and Revolutions

  • Conflicting Views on Revolution: Conservatives viewed revolutions negatively, while others desired constitutional government and democratic practices.
    • Conservatives like Joseph de Maistre saw revolutions as disruptive and unlikely to yield positive results.
    • Desire for progress, reason, and natural law led to revolutions.

The American Revolution

  • Inspiration: Rooted in European Enlightenment philosophy and economic ideas of the physiocrats.
  • Declaration of Independence: Expressed the philosophy behind the colonists' fight against British rule (July 4, 1776).
    • Thomas Jefferson used John Locke's concept of "unalienable rights."
      • Rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
  • Outcome: Colonists triumphed in 1783 with help from France.

The New Zealand Wars

  • Background: Conflicts between the Maori and British due to increased British control and pressure for land.
    • Maori developed a rich culture before European arrival.
    • Divided into tribes (iwi) that sometimes engaged in warfare.
  • Outcome: British won by 1872, despite Maori tribes uniting with a sense of Maori nationalism.

The French Revolution

  • Ideals: liberté, égalité, et fraternité (liberty, equality, and fraternity).
  • Causes: Economic woes, inequality in voting, and influence of the philosophes.
    • France spent more than it took in, partly due to financing wars.
    • Inequality in the Estates-General led to the formation of the National Assembly.
  • Key Events: Storming of the Bastille, abolition of feudalism, and adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man.
    • Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789) symbolized abuses of the monarchy.
    • Declaration of the Rights of Man: Statement declaring basic human rights.
  • Radicalization: Dissatisfaction with limited monarchy led to the Reign of Terror.
    • Jacobins executed thousands of opponents, including the king and queen.
  • Aftermath: Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor in 1804 after a period of turmoil.

The Haitian Revolution

  • Background: Slave revolt in the French colony of Haiti (St. Domingue).
  • Leadership: Toussaint L'Ouverture led a general rebellion against slavery.
    • L'Ouverture was well-read in Enlightenment thought and a capable general.
  • Outcome: Haiti became the first independent country in Latin America and the first black-led country in the Western Hemisphere (1804).
    • Haiti became permanently independent as a result of a slave uprising.
    • Jean-Jacques Dessalines orchestrated the Haitian declaration of permanent independence.
  • Comparison to French Revolution: Both grew out of Enlightenment ideals, but Haitian Revolution was led by slaves with no rights.

Creole Revolutions in Latin America

  • Social Hierarchy: Peninsulares, creoles, mestizos, mulattoes, African slaves, and indigenous population.
  • Reasons for Discontent: Mercantilism, lack of political power for creoles, and desire for wealth and power among mestizos.
  • Leadership: Simón Bolívar pushed for Enlightenment ideals and independence in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.
    • Bolívar led the formation of Gran Colombia, hoping for a federation based on Enlightenment ideals.
    • Jamaica Letter (1815): Bolívar outlined his goals and concerns for Latin America.
  • Caudillos: Strong local leaders who intervened in national politics.
  • Results: New constitutions ended some social distinctions and abolished slavery, but governments were often conservative.
    • Creoles continued to form a powerful upper class.
    • Women gained little from the revolutions.
    • Manuela Sáenz: Participated in fighting alongside Bolívar and rose to the rank of colonel.

Later Challenges to Spanish Colonialism

  • Puerto Rico: Uprisings against Spanish rule led by figures like Lola Rodríguez de Tió.
    • Lola Rodríguez de Tió: Poet who critiqued Spain's rule over Puerto Rico.
  • Philippines: Propaganda Movement advocated for greater autonomy.
    • José Rizal: Prominent agitator who contributed to publications advocating for autonomy.
    • Philippine Revolution began in 1896.

Nationalism and Unification in Europe

  • Nationalism: A unifying force that threatened empires and drove efforts to unite people with shared culture.
  • Italian Unification: Led by Count di Cavour, prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia.
    • Cavour used realpolitik to advance Italian unity.
    • Allied with Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi.
    • Risorgimento: Italian resurgence.
  • German Unification: Engineered by Otto von Bismarck using nationalist feelings and realpolitik.
    • Bismarck manipulated Austria and France into wars to gain territory.
    • Founded the German Empire in 1871.
  • Global Consequences: New powers (Italy and Germany) emerged, leading to competing alliances and eventually World War I.
    • Emigration from Italy due to poverty, especially to the United States and Argentina.

Balkan Nationalism

  • Decline of the Ottoman Empire: Enabled Balkan nationalism to develop.
  • Greek Independence: Achieved through a civil war and intervention by British, French, and Russian forces.
  • Other Balkan Regions: Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania followed similar paths to independence.

Ottoman Nationalism

  • Ottomanism: Movement to create a more modern, unified state by minimizing ethnic and religious differences.
  • Impact: Intensified feelings of difference and desire for independence among subject people.

The Future of Nationalism

  • Possible Decline: Some signs suggest nationalism might be declining due to European integration (e.g., common currency, open borders).