UK Politics Data Bank: Democracy, Participation, and Constitutional Framework

Democracy and Participation in the UK

The 2016 EU Referendum: * Over $30$ million people participated in the $2016$ EU referendum. * This high turnout provided democratic legitimacy for what is considered perhaps the largest democratic undertaking in British political history.
MP Recalls: * In $2019$ , two Members of Parliament were successfully recalled by their constituents: * Fiona Onasanya: Found guilty of lying to avoid a speeding ticket. * Chris Davies: Involved in an expenses scandal.
Devolution Constraints: * Devolution remains limited in practice; approximately $85\%$ of local council budgets in England are still provided by the central government.
Ethical Scandals: * In $2020$ , Boris Johnson was scrutinized for failing to explain a holiday worth $\pounds 15,000$ received from David Ross, the tycoon associated with Carphone Warehouse.
Declining Participation and Turnout: * Turnout in the $2024$ general election was just $52\%$ , marking the second lowest level since records began. * Local election turnout in England and Wales averages only $35.9\%$ . * General election turnout has seen a sharp decline from the $1970s$ - $1990s$ (where it was consistently $75\%+$ ) to $60\%$ in $2024$ . * Approximately $1/3$ of the UK electorate has regularly abstained from participating in General Elections since $2005$ .
Party and Group Membership: * Only $1.5\%$ of British citizens are members of a political party. * Trade union membership included $22\%$ of the workforce in $2023$ . * There has been a continuous increase in people joining trade unions and pressure groups since $2016$ .
Demographic Disparities in Voting: * Young People (18-24): Only $48\%$ turnout regularly. * Education Level: Those with the lowest levels of education (GCSE and below) have only a $35\%$ likelihood of voting, compared to the national average of $65\%$ .
Electoral Mandates: * UK governments regularly win power with less than $50\%$ of the total electorate voting for them; the last time a government won more than $50\%$ of the vote was in $1931$ . * In $2024$ , Labour received $43.2\%$ of the popular vote. * In $2001$ , Labour won with only $26\%$ of the popular vote.
Contextual Turnout Factors: * The Scottish Independence Referendum saw an $85\%$ turnout, suggesting voters participate when they understand the issue and believe their vote matters. * The AV (Alternative Vote) Referendum had a low turnout of $41\%$ due to voter apathy regarding the voting system. * The 2019 General Election had a $67.3\%$ turnout, a decrease of $1.5\%$ from $2017$ , and significantly lower than the $78.8\%$ seen in $1974$ .
Digital Participation: * Since the launch of e-petitions in $2009$ , over $40$ million people have signed them across more than $10,000$ campaigns.
Direct Action and Criminal Justice: * In $2024$ , two Just Stop Oil protesters were convicted and received sentences of $20$ months for criminal damage.

Political Parties: Funding and Controversy

Historical Scandals: * Cash for Honours (2007): Tony Blair was interviewed twice by police regarding allegations that Labour donors were appointed to the House of Lords in exchange for financial contributions. * Lord Lebedev (2020): Boris Johnson appointed the Russian oligarch and Leave campaign supporter to the House of Lords despite national security warnings from the HOLAC (Independent House of Lords Appointment Commission). * Peter Cruddas (2021): Appointed to the House of Lords by Johnson after donating $\pounds 3$ million to the Leave campaign, despite objections from HOLAC.
Recent "Cronyism" Allegations: * Kier Starmer: Scrutinized for the "Glasses for Passes" scandal involving $\pounds 100,000$ in gifts. Lord Alli received a security pass for Number 10 despite having no official government position and allegedly influenced senior government appointments.
Party Donors: * Labour (2024): Received $\pounds 4$ million from Quadrature, a hedge fund with interests in fossil fuels and private healthcare. * Conservatives (2015-2017): Received $\pounds 11.3$ million from the financial sector and $\pounds 3.6$ million from property companies. * Individual Donors: Hedge fund proprietor Angus Fraser donated $\pounds 1,137,400$ to the Conservatives between $2015$ and $2017$ . * Trade Unions (2017): Unite donated $\pounds 657,702$ and UNISON donated $\pounds 376,242$ to the Labour Party.

Party Ideologies, Manifestos, and Performance

The Labour Party: * Jeremy Corbyn (2019): Realignment to "Old Labour" values and left-wing politics led to a major defeat and the loss of the "Red Wall." * 2019 Manifesto Pledges: Suspend arms sales to Saudi Arabia (for use in Yemen), increase income tax for earners over $\pounds 80,000$ , and nationalize water/energy companies. * 2024 Strategy: Adopted a "Ming Vase Strategy" and a "campaign of silence." Focused on votes at $16$ and affordable housing for first-time buyers. * Electoral Shifts: In $2024$ , Labour lost $20\%$ of the Muslim vote due to its stance on Gaza.
The Conservative Party: * 2019 Manifesto: Promised "levelling up," $20,000$ more police officers, and $50,000$ more nurses. * Rishi Sunak (2020 Budget): Announced a $\pounds 170$ billion investment program for infrastructure. * Social Support: Sunak supported energy bill payments during the inflation crisis of $2023$ . * 2024 Manifesto: Pledged to reduce welfare spending by $\pounds 12$ billion and introduce tougher "fitness to work" regimes.
The Liberal Democrats: * Seat Count: Grew from $11$ seats in $2019$ to $72$ seats in $2024$ . * Key Historical Policies: * Increase corporation tax from $17\%$ to $20\%$ ( $2019$ ). * Opposed ID cards ( $2005$ ). * Hire $20,000$ more teachers ( $2019$ ). * Stop Brexit and re-establish EU economic links ( $2019$ ). * Tax frequent flyers and abolish tuition fees ( $2019$ ). * Replace FPTP with AV voting ( $2010$ ). * Revoke the Rwanda Policy ( $2024$ ).
Other Parties: * Reform UK: Captured $14\%$ of the popular vote in the $2024$ General Election. Raised $\pounds 1.5$ million after Nigel Farage returned as leader. * SNP: Won $48$ seats in $2019$ , becoming the third-largest party in the House of Commons. * Multi-Party Growth: In $2019$ , $82$ MPs were elected from outside the two main parties, compared to an average of $9$ in the $1950s$ - $70s$ .
Major Party Dominance: * Share of the two major parties reached a high of $82.3\%$ in $2017$ but fell to $57.4\%$ in $2024$ .

Electoral Systems and Outcomes

First Past the Post (FPTP): * 2010-2015 Coalition: Conservatives ( $36\%$ vote) and Lib Dems ( $23\%$ vote) formed a government. * 2024 Election: Kier Starmer won $1/3$ of the votes but secured $2/3$ of the seats. * Historical Milestone: David Lloyd George ( $1916$ - $1922$ ) was the last Liberal PM; all since have been Labour or Conservative. * Constituency Links: Jess Phillips MP (Birmingham Yardley) illustrated strong constituency representation by defending teachers in an LGBTQ+ curriculum dispute in $2019$ . * Disproportionality: * Lib Dems ( $2019$ ): $12\%$ of vote, <2\% of seats. * UKIP ( $2016$ ): $13\%$ of vote, only $1$ seat. * Reform UK ( $2024$ ): $14\%$ of vote, only $1\%$ of seats. * Lib Dems ( $2024$ ): Similarly, $12\%$ of vote but $11\%$ of seats.
Additional Member System (AMS) - Scotland and Wales: * The SNP has dominated the Scottish Parliament since $2007$ . * 2016 Scottish Election: Proportionality was higher, with a maximum $5\%$ difference between votes and seats returned. The SNP got $44\%$ of the vote but $49\%$ of MSPs ( $63$ out of $129$ ); Lib Dems got $7\%$ of the vote and $4\%$ of seats ( $5$ MSPs). * Senedd (2021): Only Welsh Labour, Welsh Conservatives, and Plaid Cymru won seats. * Coalition Breakdown: The SNP-Green coalition ( $2022$ - $2024$ ) collapsed under Humza Yousaf over climate targets and puberty blocker legislation. John Swinney now leads a minority government.
Single Transferable Vote (STV) - Northern Ireland: * The Stormont Assembly has been non-functional for $1/3$ of its life due to gridlock and resignations (suspended $2002$ - $2007$ , $2017$ - $2020$ , and $2022$ - $2024$ ). * Sinn Fein: Under Michelle O'Neill, the party abolished the ban on gay/bisexual men donating blood and cooperated on the Windsor Deal ( $2022$ ). * Local Council Impact (Scotland 2017): Resulted in no single party having control of any council, slowing decision-making.
Supplementary Vote (SV): * Reduces wasted votes (e.g., Green voters using Sadiq Khan as a second preference in $2016$ ). * Elections Act (2022): The Conservatives reverted mayoral elections from SV back to FPTP. * Sadiq Khan: Won third term as Mayor in $2024$ . Received $56.8\%$ in $2016$ and $55\%$ in $2021$ .

Referendums and Media Impact

Referendum Comparison: * UK GE turnout: $59.7\%$ ( $2024$ ), $66\%$ ( $2015$ ). * Switzerland (2024): $4$ referendums with an average turnout of $49\%$ .
Misinformation and Polarization: * AV Referendum: Misleading claims that implementation would cost $\pounds 250$ million (actual cost was $\pounds 75$ million). One leaflet gave $4$ pages to AV but only $3$ sentences to FPTP. * Brexit: Metropolitan Police reported a $17\%$ increase in hate crimes against ethnic minorities during the lead-up.
Historical Failures/Votes: * $1973$ Northern Ireland referendum failed due to a boycott by half the community. * $1975$ National referendum on remaining in the EEC (European Economic Community).
Media Influence: * $74\%$ of Daily Mail readers voted Conservative in $2017$ . * Rishi Sunak's interview on The Times Political Podcast saw an $84\%$ increase in typical downloads.

Voting Behaviour and Demographics

Social Class: * In $1979$ and $1997$ , Conservatives won the AB vote while Labour won C2 and DE. * In $2024$ , social class predicted Reform Party support ( $25\%$ of the C2 vote). * Turnout among DE voters increased by $7\%$ in $2024$ compared to $2019$ .
Education and Geography: * Conservatives and Reform perform well in working-class areas with high numbers of non-graduates. * Labour and Lib Dems perform well in traditional heartlands and graduate-heavy areas (e.g., Cambridge). * $66\%$ of degree holders voted for Labour or Lib Dems in $2024$ , while $61\%$ of those with only GCSEs voted Conservative or Reform.
Age: * 18-24: Labour ( $41\%$ ), Conservatives ( $5\%$ ) in $2024$ . * 65+: Conservatives ( $43\%$ ), Labour ( $23\%$ ) in $2024$ .
Ethnicity and Religion: * BME Voters: Labour received $64\%$ in $2019$ (Tories $20\%$ ). * Muslim Voters: Supported Labour at $80\%$ in $2019$ , falling to roughly $60\%$ in $2024$ . * Jewish Voters: Support for Labour fell to $9\%$ under Corbyn ( $2019$ ) but bounced back to $40\%$ in $2024$ .
Campaign Impact: Only $7\%$ of voters in $2024$ said they were "likely" to change their minds during the campaign.

The Constitution and Parliament

House of Lords Reform: * Hereditary peers were reduced from over $800$ to a fixed number of $92$ (currently $91$ as of Sept $2024$ ). * Composition: $91$ Hereditary Peers, $26$ Bishops, and approximately $700$ Life Peers.
Government Majorities: * Boris Johnson ( $2019$ ): $80$ seats. * Tony Blair ( $2001$ ): $167$ seats. * Kier Starmer ( $2024$ ): $156$ seats.
Legislative Resistance: * House of Commons: Johnson faced a rebellion of $99$ MPs over Covid Passports. Theresa May suffered $33$ defeats over Brexit legislation ( $2015$ - $2017$ ). * House of Lords: Increased independence; suffered $133$ defeats in $2021$ - $2022$ and $124$ in $2022$ - $2023$ . * Public Bills: $2/3$ of recommendations are typically rejected.
Constitutional Constraints: The House of Lords is limited by the Salisbury Convention and the Parliament Acts; only $1\%$ - $5\%$ of their amendments are usually approved.

Executive and Judicial Branches

Collective Ministerial Responsibility (CMR) Resignations: * Sunak (2022): Under Boris Johnson. * Robin Cook (2003): Under Blair regarding the Iraq War. * Boris Johnson (2018): Under May regarding the Chequers agreement/Brexit. * Iain Duncan Smith (2016): Under Cameron over disability benefit cuts. * Sir Geoffrey Howe (1990): Resigned as Deputy PM after Thatcher undermined EMU policies.
Individual Ministerial Responsibility (IMR) Issues: * Amber Rudd (2018): Windrush scandal. * Dominic Raab (2023): Bullying allegations. * Priti Patel: Allegations of bullying in $2020$ (did not resign then); resigned in $2022$ as Secretary of State after secret meetings with Israeli officials. * Gavin Williamson: Dismissed in $2021$ after remaining in office for a year following controversies.
The Lord Chancellor: * Alex Chalk: Former LC, MP for Cheltenham, led the Domestic Abuse Bill. * Shabana Mahmood: Current LC, MP for Birmingham Ladywood, first Muslim LC, Oxford Law graduate.
The UK Supreme Court (UKSC): * Diversity: Only $2$ female justices (Lady Rose and Lady Simler); all current justices are white and from affluent backgrounds. * Education: $11$ of the justices are Oxbridge alumni. * Miller Cases (2017 & 2019): Court ruled Prime Ministerial use of prerogative power (Article $50$ and prorogation) were ultra vires. * Safety of Rwanda Act (2024): Government used its majority to pass this act following the $2023$ UKSC ruling that original deportation plans were unlawful.