Core readings

Ogden, J. (2012). Health Psychology a textbook (5th ed).

Chapter 1

1. What is Health Psychology?

  • Definition: Health psychology is the study of psychological and behavioural processes in health, illness, and healthcare.

  • It examines how biological, social, and psychological factors influence health and disease.

  • Aims to promote health, prevent illness, and improve healthcare systems.

2. The Changing Nature of Health and Illness

  • Over time, causes of illness have shifted from infectious diseases (e.g., tuberculosis) to chronic conditions (e.g., heart disease, cancer, diabetes).

  • Modern illnesses are often influenced by behavioural and lifestyle factors (e.g., smoking, diet, stress).

3. The Biopsychosocial Model vs. the Biomedical Model

  • Biomedical Model:

    • Views illness as purely biological (e.g., viruses, genetics).

    • Focuses on diagnosis and medical treatment.

    • Ignores psychological and social influences.

  • Biopsychosocial Model:

    • Considers biological, psychological, and social factors in health.

    • Emphasizes holistic healthcare approaches.

    • Recognizes the role of behaviour, emotions, and social environment.

4. Health Psychology’s Role in Healthcare

  • Understanding Health Behaviours: Helps explain why people engage in risky or healthy behaviours.

  • Behaviour Change Interventions: Develops strategies to encourage healthier lifestyles (e.g., smoking cessation, exercise promotion).

  • Patient-Provider Relationships: Explores how communication affects diagnosis, treatment adherence, and recovery.

  • Coping with Illness: Studies psychological responses to illness and ways to improve coping mechanisms.

5. Research Methods in Health Psychology

  • Uses experimental (controlled lab studies), correlational (assessing relationships), longitudinal (tracking changes over time), and qualitative (interviews, case studies) research methods.

  • Evidence-based approaches are crucial for designing effective health interventions.

6. Conclusion

  • Health psychology bridges the gap between medical science and psychology.

  • It provides valuable insights into preventive healthcare, chronic illness management, and patient well-being.

  • The field continues to grow, shaping modern healthcare policies and practices.

Chapter 2

1. Introduction to Health Behaviour Models

  • Health behaviours are influenced by psychological, social, and environmental factors.

  • Models help predict and explain why individuals adopt (or fail to adopt) healthy behaviours.

2. The Health Belief Model (HBM)

  • Suggests that people take health-related actions based on:

    • Perceived susceptibility (risk of developing a condition)

    • Perceived severity (seriousness of the condition)

    • Perceived benefits (effectiveness of an action)

    • Perceived barriers (cost, difficulty, or inconvenience)

    • Cues to action (triggers like symptoms or media campaigns)

    • Self-efficacy (belief in one’s ability to take action)

3. Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)

  • Behaviour is shaped by:

    • Attitudes (personal evaluation of behaviour)

    • Subjective norms (social pressure to engage in behaviour)

    • Perceived behavioural control (how easy or difficult it is)

  • Stronger intentions lead to a higher likelihood of action.

4. The Transtheoretical Model (Stages of Change Model)

  • Behaviour change is a process with stages:

    1. Precontemplation (no intention to change)

    2. Contemplation (considering change)

    3. Preparation (making small steps)

    4. Action (actively changing behaviour)

    5. Maintenance (sustaining behaviour)

5. Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)

  • Behaviour is influenced by reciprocal determinism (interaction of personal, environmental, and behavioural factors).

  • Observational learning (modelling behaviours from others) plays a role.

  • Self-efficacy is key to successful behaviour change.

6. Criticisms of Health Behaviour Models

  • Some models oversimplify human behaviour and ignore emotional or unconscious influences.

  • They often assume rational decision-making, which isn’t always the case.

  • Contextual and structural factors (e.g., socioeconomic status) are sometimes overlooked.

7. Conclusion

  • No single model fully explains health behaviour.

  • Combining models may offer better insights into behaviour change strategies.

Chapter 3

This section focuses on the relationship between stress and health, including how stress affects the body and psychological well-being.

1. Defining Stress

  • Stress is defined as the psychological and physiological response to external or internal demands (stressors) that challenge an individual’s ability to cope effectively.

  • It is not just the event itself but the individual’s perception of and reaction to the event that determines the stress experience.

  • Stressors can be:

    • Acute: Short-term events (e.g., exams, public speaking).

    • Chronic: Long-term situations (e.g., ongoing work pressure, financial problems).

  • Eustress vs. Distress:

    • Eustress: Positive stress that can enhance motivation and performance.

    • Distress: Negative stress that can lead to health problems if prolonged.

2. Theories of Stress

A. General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) – Hans Selye (1956)

  • Selye’s model explains the biological response to prolonged stress, consisting of three stages:

Alarm Reaction Stage:

  • The body’s immediate reaction to a stressor.

  • Activates the sympathetic nervous system, triggering the “fight-or-flight” response.

  • Hormones like adrenaline and cortisol are released, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy supply.

Resistance Stage:

  • If the stressor persists, the body attempts to adapt and cope.

  • Physiological responses remain elevated, but the body tries to function normally.

  • Coping mechanisms are activated to manage the stressor.

  • Vulnerability to illness increases because resources are being used to maintain this heightened state.

Exhaustion Stage:

  • If the stress continues for too long, the body’s resources are depleted.

  • Results in physical and mental health issues, such as weakened immune function, fatigue, anxiety, depression, or even stress-related illnesses (e.g., cardiovascular diseases).

Criticism of GAS:

  • Focuses mainly on physiological responses, with less emphasis on psychological and cognitive factors.

B. Transactional Model of Stress and Coping – Lazarus & Folkman (1984)

  • This model views stress as a dynamic process that involves an ongoing interaction between the individual and their environment.

  • Emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in determining the stress response:

Primary Appraisal:

  • The individual assesses whether the situation is:

    • A threat (potential future harm)

    • A challenge (an opportunity for growth or gain)

    • Benign/irrelevant (no significant impact)

Secondary Appraisal:

  • Involves evaluating available coping resources and personal ability to manage the stressor.

  • Questions like: “What can I do?” or “Do I have the skills/support to handle this?”

Reappraisal:

  • As the situation evolves, people may reassess the stressor and adjust their coping strategies accordingly.

  • Key Insight: Stress is not just about the event but how a person perceives and responds to it.?

3. The Impact of Stress on Health

A. Physical Health Effects:

  • Chronic stress can have severe consequences for physical health due to prolonged activation of the stress response system:

    • Weakened immune system: Increased vulnerability to infections and slower recovery.

    • Cardiovascular problems: High blood pressure, increased risk of heart attacks and strokes.

    • Digestive issues: Stomach ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

    • Sleep disturbances: Insomnia or poor-quality sleep.

    • Chronic illnesses: Stress is linked to diabetes, obesity, and autoimmune conditions.

B. Mental Health Effects:

  • Psychological consequences of stress include:

    • Anxiety and depression

    • Mood swings and irritability

    • Cognitive impairments: Difficulty concentrating, memory issues

    • Burnout: Emotional exhaustion, particularly in high-stress professions

4. Coping Strategies

Coping refers to the strategies people use to manage the demands of stressful situations.

A. Types of Coping Strategies:

Problem-Focused Coping:

  • Aims to address the source of the stress directly.

  • Examples:

    • Developing a study plan to prepare for an exam

    • Seeking information to solve a problem

    • Negotiating workload adjustments at work

  • Most effective when the stressor is controllable.

Emotion-Focused Coping:

  • Focuses on regulating emotional responses to stress.

  • Examples:

    • Talking to a friend for emotional support

    • Practicing mindfulness, relaxation techniques, or meditation

    • Reframing the situation positively

  • Often used when the stressor is beyond one’s control (e.g., coping with grief).

Avoidant (Maladaptive) Coping:

  • Involves ignoring the stressor or engaging in behaviours to distract from it.

  • Examples:

    • Denial, substance abuse, procrastination

    • Excessive screen time to escape stress

  • While it may provide short-term relief, it often leads to poorer long-term outcomes.

B. Factors Influencing Coping Effectiveness:

  • Personality traits: Optimism, resilience, and self-efficacy can improve coping.

  • Social support: Having a strong support network reduces the impact of stress.

  • Cultural influences: Cultural norms can shape how people perceive and respond to stress.

âś… Key Takeaways:

  • Stress arises from the interaction between external demands and internal coping resources.

  • Cognitive appraisal plays a critical role in determining whether an event is experienced as stressful.

  • Chronic stress can negatively affect both physical and mental health, making effective coping strategies essential.

  • Both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping can be effective, depending on the situation.

Chapter 12

Pain

This chapter explores pain as a complex and multifaceted experience, incorporating physiological, psychological, and social dimensions. It discusses different models of pain, factors influencing pain perception, and various pain management techniques.

1. Defining Pain

  • Pain is a subjective experience influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors.

  • The International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) defines pain as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage.”

2. Theories of Pain

  • Biomedical Model: Pain is a direct response to tissue damage, with a linear relationship between injury and pain experienced.

  • Gate Control Theory (Melzack & Wall, 1965):

    • Pain is modulated by neural mechanisms (a “gate” in the spinal cord) that either amplify or dampen pain signals.

    • Psychological and social factors influence whether pain signals are perceived.

  • Neuromatrix Theory (Melzack, 1999):

    • Pain is generated by a network of neurons (neuromatrix) that integrate sensory, cognitive, and emotional information.

    • Explains chronic pain and phantom limb pain.

3. Psychological and Social Influences on Pain

  • Cognitive Factors:

    • Attention: Focusing on pain increases perception, while distraction reduces it.

    • Expectations: Anticipating pain can worsen perception (e.g., the placebo effect).

    • Beliefs about Pain: Catastrophizing (exaggerating pain severity) leads to increased suffering.

  • Emotional Factors:

    • Anxiety and depression can heighten pain experiences.

    • Stress can exacerbate pain due to physiological arousal.

  • Social and Cultural Influences:

    • Pain expression varies by cultural background and learned behaviou

    • rs.

    • Social support can buffer pain perception.

4. Managing Pain

  • Pharmacological Treatments:

    • Analgesics (e.g., opioids, NSAIDs).

    • Issues include tolerance, addiction, and side effects.

  • Psychological and Behavioral Interventions:

    • Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Targets negative thought patterns to improve coping strategies.

    • Relaxation Techniques: Progressive muscle relaxation and deep breathing to reduce tension.

    • Hypnosis and Distraction Techniques: Used to alter pain perception.

  • Alternative and Complementary Approaches:

    • Acupuncture, massage, meditation.

    • Limited empirical support but may be effective for some individuals.

5. Chronic vs. Acute Pain

  • Acute Pain: Short-term pain linked to injury or illness, typically resolving with treatment.

  • Chronic Pain: Lasts beyond normal healing time (e.g., back pain, fibromyalgia).

    • Requires multidimensional treatment approaches.

Chapter 17

Measuring Health Status: From Mortality Rates to Quality of Life

This chapter focuses on methods used to assess health, moving beyond simple mortality statistics to more comprehensive quality-of-life measures.

1. Traditional Health Indicators

  • Mortality Rates: Death rates from diseases (e.g., infant mortality, life expectancy).

  • Morbidity Rates: Incidence and prevalence of diseases in a population.

2. Self-Reported Health Measures

  • Surveys and questionnaires are commonly used to assess health perceptions.

  • Examples:

    • General Health Questionnaire (GHQ).

    • SF-36 Health Survey (assesses physical, emotional, and social health).

  • Limitations:

    • Subjectivity and response bias.

    • Cultural and individual differences in perception.

3. Objective vs. Subjective Measures

  • Objective Measures:

    • Biomarkers (e.g., blood pressure, cholesterol levels).

    • Performance-based measures (e.g., fitness tests).

  • Subjective Measures:

    • Self-reported health status and well-being.

    • Includes emotional and social factors.

4. Measuring Quality of Life (QoL)

  • Moves beyond disease status to assess overall well-being.

  • Dimensions of QoL:

    • Physical Functioning: Mobility, daily activities.

    • Psychological Well-Being: Emotional stability, mental health.

    • Social Functioning: Relationships and community engagement.

  • Health-Related Quality of Life (HRQoL):

    • A subset of QoL specifically related to health conditions.

    • Used in clinical trials and health policy.

5. Challenges in Measuring Health

  • Cultural Differences: Definitions of health and well-being vary.

  • Subjectivity: Perceptions of health are influenced by personal expectations.

  • Dynamic Nature of Health: Health status changes over time, requiring longitudinal studies.