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Improving Executive Functioning

  • Definition of executive functioning: The high-level cognitive abilities that allow us to problem solve and make effective decisions.
  • Importance of being confident in judgments and perseverance in problem-solving.

Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles

Cognitive Strategies in Problem Solving

  • Problem-solving strategies include:
    • Trial and Error:
    • Example: Thomas Edison's experimentation with light bulb filaments, trying thousands before finding a successful solution.
    • Algorithms:
    • Defined as step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution, though can be labor-intensive.
    • Example: Finding a word using the letters in "SPLOYOCHYG" would involve 907,200 permutations through systematic letter placement.
    • Heuristics:
    • Defined as simpler thinking strategies that simplify problem-solving.
    • Example: Grouping common letter pairs in "SPLOYOCHYG" (like "CH" and "GY") can reduce the number of combinations to consider.

Insight in Problem Solving

  • Definition of insight: A sudden realization of a solution to a problem.

  • Brain imaging studies show increased brain activity associated with insights, particularly in the right temporal lobe.

    • Example study: Participants solved compound word problems, where half reported an "Aha!" moment, leading to an associated burst of activity in the brain.

  • Insight demonstrated in animals:

    • Sultan the Chimpanzee:
    • Situation: Chimpanzee uses a short stick to pull in a longer stick to reach fruit after a period of failed attempts and then a moment of insight.
    • Crows:
    • Experiment showed crows using tools (sticks) to access food, illustrating cognitive ability.
    • Example: A thisty crow about a pitcher’s water level found a way to add stones for raising the water level.

  • Pleasure of insight: Sudden comprehension can create satisfaction akin to jokes revealing surprising punchlines.

Cognitive Tendencies and Their Implications

Confirmation Bias

  • Definition: The tendency to seek evidence that supports our beliefs more than evidence that contradicts them.
  • Example experiment:
    • Peter Wason (1960) provided students with a simple numerical rule (ascending numbers) and they often tested sets that only confirmed their hypothesis instead of exploring different possibilities.

Fixation in Problem Solving

  • Definition: An inability to view a problem from a new perspective due to previous learning or beliefs.
  • Example: The matchstick problem requires innovative thinking; fixation could inhibit finding a solution.
    • Mental Set: Following previously successful methods can also hinder problem-solving; cognitive predispositions can prevent recognition of new solutions.
    • Example sequences:
    • O-T-T-F-? - were found to be F, S, S representing five, six, and seven.
    • J-F-M-A-? prompts to think of the months of the year.

Fast and Intuitive Decision Making

  • Research by Irving Janis (1986) indicates decision-makers often do not employ reflective thinking and rely on intuition for daily judgments.

Quick but Risky Shortcuts

Heuristics

  • Usefulness of heuristics for quick thinking, yet they may also lead to poor decisions.

Types of Heuristics

The Representativeness Heuristic

  • Defined: Judging likelihood based on how closely something matches a prototype.

  • Example: A person described as short, slim and enjoying poetry is more likely mistaken for an English professor rather than a truck driver, despite the vastly greater number of truck drivers (3.5 million vs. fewer than 400 English professors).

  • Concepts like racial bias also stem from representativeness heuristics.

  • Example: Misapplication leading to gambler’s fallacy when assuming that past outcomes determine future probabilities, such as expecting a coin to land tails after several heads.

The Availability Heuristic
  • Defined: Evaluating the frequency of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.
  • Examples affecting public perception:
    • Media portrayal of terrorism can shape a lingering fear, as can vivid imagery (e.g., separated children) influencing public attitudes towards immigration and policy over time.
  • Concerns about vaccines were fueled by anecdotal evidence rather than scientific consensus, showcasing the risks of availability heuristic in distorting risk perception.
  • Bottom Line: Often leads us to fear the wrong threats.

Summary

  • Problem solving is influenced by cognitive strategies such as heuristics and algorithms.
  • Insight offers a unique approach to solution finding, exemplified in humans and animals.
  • Cognitive biases like confirmation bias and fixation impede effective decision-making.
  • Heuristics, while useful for quick judgement, can lead to significant inaccuracies in our decisions.