Human development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss.
It is constructed through the interaction of:
Biological factors
Cognitive factors
Sociocultural factors
Environmental factors
Individual factors
Development is multidimensional and multidirectional, reflecting internal biological direction and responsiveness to environmental demands.
Development demonstrates plasticity, allowing adaptation and positive change when facing challenges (Baltz, Lindenberger, & Stoutinger, 2006; Balz & Smith, 2003).
Crawling: A Case Illustration (1.1)
Crawling exemplifies the multidimensional and multidirectional nature of development and the interplay of biological and environmental forces.
Initiating crawling signals changes and drives further development.
Crawling requires:
Strength to sit and support oneself on hands and knees.
Ability and environmental support for risk-taking.
Crawling contributes to:
Balance development
Practice of bilateral motion
Strengthening of muscles for walking
Increased mobility, leading to independence.
New visual perspectives and experiences, stimulating cognitive development.
Increased social interaction.
The transition to crawling impacts physical, cognitive, and social development, as well as worldview.
Developmental forces are bidirectional: biological influences affect cognition and vice versa.
Lifespan Perspective on Development
Historically, children were viewed as miniature adults.
The idea of childhood as a unique stage emerged in the 1600s (Cunningham, 2006).
Early studies focused on the adult experience and generalized it to children.
Later, emphasis shifted to childhood experiences, but development continues throughout life.
Development involves qualitative changes, not just quantitative ones.
Adults can employ information in qualitatively different ways (e.g., hypothetical deductive reasoning).
Socio-emotional motives change throughout life.
Development includes adjustments and changes throughout life (Charles & Carstensen, 2010; Hoyer & Rubin, 2009).
Human Developmental Periods
Developmental periods are marked by unique features, tasks, capabilities, and challenges.
The text identifies 11 periods of development.
Consider the challenges at each period and the potential role of a counselor in facilitating development.
Development as Contextual
The nature of developmental challenges and responses is influenced by context.
Context includes: culture, ethnicity, social values, histories, and economics.
Development occurs and is influenced by the setting and conditions.
Baltz and Smith (2003) identify three types of influences:
Normative age-graded influences: similar experiences for those within an age group.
Normative history-graded influences: widespread impact of major sociopolitical events (e.g., World War II, civil rights movements, 9/11).
Non-normative influences: individualized life events (e.g., death of a loved one, abuse, winning the lottery).
Life Domains of Human Development
Domains include: socio-emotional, physical, linguistic, and cognitive development.
Growth in one domain can be dominant but other domains are also changing.
Physical capabilities interact with sensory perception and stimulate cognitive development.
Adolescence involves physical changes (e.g., voice deepening, body hair growth) and emotional changes (e.g., moodiness).
Cognitive changes include the ability to think about one's own thinking and hypothetical reasoning.
Development is multifaceted, including growth, regression, and change in different domains.
Understanding domain-specific changes at different periods is essential for counselors to differentiate between normative and problematic development.
Biopsychosocial Approach
Development is a result of the interaction of biological, cultural, and personal factors (Boltz, Reuter-Lorenz, & Rosol, 2006).
Development is viewed and studied from an interactive perspective, valuing biology, psychology, and social context.
The focus is on the interplay of biological, psychological, and social/cultural processes.
George Engel (1980) formulated the biopsychosocial model as a dynamic, interactional view.
The model considers the mutual influence of mind and body through biological, psychological, and sociocultural systems.
Example: Heart disease has a pathophysiological component (biological), but is also influenced by sociocultural and psychological factors (e.g., poverty, nutrition, stress).
Biological System
Consists of organs working together to perform tasks.
Investigates how the biological/neurological basis affects human growth and development.
Seeks to understand how body functioning contributes to developmental difficulties.
Psychological System
Looks for contributions from psychological issues that have caused or contributed to developmental difficulty.
Includes issues such as irrational thinking, emotional distress, lack of self-control (Ilim, 2000).
Sociocultural System
Considers how social contextual factors contribute to healthy or unhealthy development.
Includes social environment, interactive patterns, socioeconomic status (SES), culture, family structure, and religion.
Draws attention to social roles, norms, and the timing/sequence of life events.
Application to Counseling Skills
Normative growth/development and pathology are influenced by multiple factors:
Non-normative factors (e.g., death of a child, early death of parents).
This integrative approach parallels the multidimensional nature of development.
The focus remains on understanding the interplay of biological, psychological, and social/cultural processes.
Case Illustration 1.2: Biopsychosocial Considerations (Charlie's Case)
Charlie is a 28-year-old female presenting with symptoms of possible depression and anxiety.
She is feeling anxious, overeating, and oversleeping after her boyfriend proposed.
She is withdrawn from friends who disapprove of her relationship with Jack, who they believe is an abusive alcoholic.
She lacks interest in work and has low performance.
Charlie grew up in a rigid and religious family.
Her father is authoritative and violent when drunk.
Her relationship with her mother is strained due to criticism of the father's behavior.
Charlie's relationship with Jack is rocky, with a history of domestic violence.
She feels guilt over her father and Jack's drinking problems.
She has supportive friends but has distanced herself from them.
There was one reported incident of domestic violence with her boyfriend
Symptoms include oversleeping, overeating, isolation, and anxiety.
Protective factors include a supportive mother and friends, as well as Charlie's insight and motivation for treatment.
Stressors include absences from work, relationship with Jack, and traumatic experiences growing up with an abusive alcoholic father.
Human Development Knowledge Applied to Counseling
Lawrence Kohlberg believed counseling is important for the development of both counselor and client.
The counseling process is a fundamental social activity and a developmental process of social interaction.
Listening requires empathy and role-taking, important for moral and psychological growth.
Knowledge of human development helps differentiate normative from problematic behavior.
It positions counselors to serve as advocates or agents of prevention.
Some individuals are more vulnerable to interferences of healthy development due to conditions of birth or circumstances of life.
Examples of stressors include absence of prenatal care, bullying, environmental pollution, poverty, abuse, and abandonment.
Subtle threats include pressure to succeed, lack of social support, and physical limitations with restricted financial resources.
Understanding challenges throughout development helps appreciate factors that facilitate healthy growth.
Counselors can intervene and proactively advocate for those who need support.
Summary of Human Development
Human development is an interdisciplinary field dedicated to understanding human constancy and changes throughout the lifespan.
The study requires a comprehensive and systematic approach, explaining both change and continuity.
The four major goals of the field are:
To describe changes across the lifespan.
To explain these changes.
To predict developmental changes.
To intervene in the course of events to control them.
Human development requires a lifespan perspective, including multidimensional, multidirectional, multidisciplinary, plastic, and contextual development.
Domains include psychosocial, emotional, physical, language, and cognition.
Understanding human development enhances the counselor's ability to apply best practices and advocate for those in need.