History: The French Revolution and the Modern World

The French Revolution, the Russian Revolution, and the rise of Nazism are identified as foundational events in the making of the modern world.
The French Revolution ended the monarchy and introduced a society based on rights and equality rather than feudal privileges.
The Russian Revolution established socialism, addressing economic equality and the rights of workers and peasants under the Soviet government.
The rise of Nazism in Germany, led by Hitler, represented a system of tyranny, violence, and the persecution of minorities, particularly Jews.

The Old Regime: French society was divided into three estates: the Clergy ( $1^{st}$ estate), Nobility ( $2^{nd}$ estate), and the Third Estate (peasants, artisans, businessmen, and professionals).
Taxation: Only members of the Third Estate paid taxes, including the tithe (to the Church) and taille (to the state). The first two estates enjoyed birth privileges and tax exemptions.
Economic Crisis: In $1774$ , King Louis XVI of the Bourbon family inherited an empty treasury due to long years of war and the cost of maintaining the Palace of Versailles.
Debt: Helping thirteen American colonies gain independence added over $1$ billion livres to a debt exceeding $2$ billion livres. Lenders charged $10$ per cent interest.
Subsistence Crisis: The population rose from $23$ million in $1715$ to $28$ million in $1789$ . Food production could not keep pace, leading to rising bread prices and a widening gap between the rich and the poor.

Estates General: On $5$ May $1789$ , Louis XVI called a meeting to pass new taxes. The Third Estate demanded that each member have one vote, a democratic principle found in Rousseau's The Social Contract.
National Assembly: After the King rejected their proposal, the Third Estate declared themselves a National Assembly on $20$ June $1789$ in an indoor tennis court at Versailles.
Storming of the Bastille: On $14$ July $1789$ , an agitated crowd destroyed the Bastille prison, a symbol of despotic power, sparked by rumors of a military crackdown.
Abolition of Feudalism: Overpowered by revolts, the King recognized the Assembly. On $4$ August $1789$ , the feudal system and privileges were abolished.
Constitution of $1791$ : Established France as a constitutional monarchy. It separated powers into the legislature, executive, and judiciary. Only "active citizens" (men over $25$ paying specific taxes) could vote.

War and Republic: In April $1792$ , the Assembly declared war on Prussia and Austria. The monarchy was abolished on $21$ September $1792$ , and France became a republic.
Execution: Louis XVI was executed for treason on $21$ January $1793$ at the Place de la Concorde.
Reign of Terror ( $1793$ - $1794$ ): Maximillian Robespierre followed a policy of severe control. Enemies of the republic were guillotined. He was eventually arrested and executed in July $1794$ .
The Directory: After the fall of the Jacobins, a five-member executive called the Directory ruled, but political instability led to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Women's Rights: Women were active participants but were classified as "passive citizens" in $1791$ . Olympe de Gouges protested this exclusion. French women finally won the right to vote in $1946$ .
Abolition of Slavery: The Convention legislated the end of slavery in $1794$ . Napoleon reintroduced it in $1804$ , and it was finally abolished in French colonies in $1848$ .
Censorship: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen ( $1789$ ) established freedom of speech and expression as a natural right, ending the censorship of the Old Regime.

Napoleon Bonaparte: Crowned himself Emperor in $1804$ . He introduced the protection of private property and a uniform decimal system. He was defeated at Waterloo in $1815$ .
Global Impact: Ideas of liberty and democratic rights spread throughout Europe and inspired anti-colonial movements in India (notably Tipu Sultan and Raja Rammohan Roy) and across the world.

Activity on Social Roles: Students are asked to explain why a nobleman was portrayed as a "spider" and the peasant as a "fly" in period etchings, representing the exploitative nature of the Second Estate.
Discussion on Liberty: The transcript contrasts the views of Camille Desmoulins (liberty as happiness and reason) and Robespierre (liberty requiring terror to annihilate enemies). Desmoulins questioned the use of the scaffold, arguing it created more enemies.
Activity on Women's Status: Comparison between Olympe de Gouges' Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen and the original Declaration of the Rights of Man, focusing on the consistency of universal rights.