Modernity and Emergence of Modern Social Theory

UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY: AN INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL THEORY (SCS230) WEEK 2: MODERNITY AND THE EMERGENCE OF MODERN SOCIAL THEORY

MODERNITY: YOU’RE STANDING IN IT

  • Previous Class Summary:
    • Lamert argued that social theory serves as a "survival tool" necessary for navigating a "troubled, divisive, and power-divided modern world".
    • Social theory is described as a critical discourse that underpins sociological practices.
    • Practical aspects of sociology (e.g., inquiry, fieldwork, methodology) activate social theory in real-world applications.
    • Focus on iniquity and division allows social theory to invoke parrhesia (candid speech).
    • Sociology is intrinsically tied to the concept of ‘modernity’.
  • Key Questions:
    • What defines this modern social world?
    • How do social scientists conceptualize modernity?

MODERNITY DEFINED

  • Etymology: The term modernity derives from the Latin word ‘modus’ meaning "of our time" which emphasizes the present rather than the past.

  • Broader Definition:

    • Modernity encapsulates the condition of being “modern” which consists of:
    • A specific period in time.
    • A collection of social forms or processes distinctly different from traditional/pre-modern societies (e.g., feudal, nomadic, tribal).

  • Historical Context:

    • Originated from significant shifts in Western societies starting from the 17th century leading to transitions such as:
    • From an agricultural base to an industrial foundation.
    • From feudal economic systems to a capitalist framework.
    • Population migrations from rural settings to urban environments, expanding beyond Western Europe during colonization.
    • These transformations have radically altered human lives across the globe; some improvements were noted, but often negative impacts ensued, affecting numerous aspects of daily life (Van Krieken, et al., 2010: 9).

WHY MODERNITY?

  • Reasons for Studying Modernity:
    • Social theories emerge as products of modernity; they did not exist in pre-modern societies (such as hunter-gatherers or agricultural communities).
    • The issues addressed by social theories arise principally from conditions in the modern era.
    • For example, traditional communities historically integrated disabled, elderly, and frail individuals into family structures. The modern shift has exacerbated issues of deprivation due to changes in care systems (Pullen-Sansfacon & Cowden, 2012).
    • Thus, modernity forms both the broad context and the focal point of social sciences.

THE PRE-MODERN WORLD

  • Nomadic Hunter-Gatherer Societies:

    • Existed for over 200,000 years.
    • Defined by cooperation for survival, resource sharing, and conflict resolution through avoidance rather than warfare.
    • No capacity for material wealth accumulation (Flannery & Marcus, 2012; Sahlins, 2004).
    • Sustainable environmental impact and relative economic equality, with some divisions by age and gender.

  • Neolithic Revolution:

    • Approximately 10,000 years ago, marked the dawn of settled agriculture, leading to new inequality and oppressive practices (e.g., slavery).
    • Religion played a significant role in justifying hierarchies and inequalities.

  • Feudalism:

    • Following the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, Europe divided into feudal kingdoms, establishing inequality between land-owning lords (aristocracy) and peasant farmers.
    • The Catholic Church heavily influenced social values, similarly providing early forms of social services during the Middle Ages until approximately the 17th century (Horner, 2012: 19).

SOME MAJOR TYPES OF HUMAN SOCIETY

  • Historical Timeline of Societal Development:
    • Hunter-Gatherer Societies (500,000? years ago – Archaic Homo Sapiens / 200,000 years ago for Homo Sapiens).
    • Pastoral and Agrarian Societies (10,000 years ago).
    • Traditional City-States I (Empires and Slavery - 6,000 years ago).
    • Traditional City-States II (Feudal - 800-1850 AD).
    • Modernity (last 200 years marked by Industrial-Capitalism).

THREE REVOLUTIONS USHERING IN MODERNITY

  • 1. Scientific Revolution:

    • A profound intellectual transformation in Europe from the 15th to 17th centuries led by figures such as Galileo, Copernicus, and Isaac Newton.
    • Emphasized observation, testing, measurement, and calculation devoid of supernatural references, fundamentally altering humanity's understanding of the universe.
    • Shift from religious/traditional bases of knowledge to science and reason, which became the cornerstones of reliable knowledge (Wadham, et al., 2007: 39).
    • Secular Humanism: Belief in human potential to direct progress towards more significant freedom and equality independently of religion.
    • Rationalism: Affirms individuals as rational beings with reason, alongside observation and experimentation, as the primary pathways to truth, progress, and emancipation (Ife, et al., 2007).

  • 2. Political Revolution:

    • Resulted in upheavals led by the educated merchant classes in Europe and North America, advocating for popular representation against the aristocracy and monarchy.
    • The American and French revolutions (1776 and 1789) resulted in government reforms centered on individual liberty, equal citizenship, and democratic representation, although initially limited to property-owning males.
    • Two approaches to societal issues emerged:
    • Individualistic Approach: Views social problems, including poverty, as a result of poor individual choices, while wealth is seen as a product of hard work and freedom from state market restrictions.
    • Critical Approach: Argues for collective methods to address issues like poverty which stem from unjust social structures.

  • 3. Industrial-Capitalist Revolution:

    • Originating in the late 18th century UK, this revolution marked the shift towards mechanized, factory-based production as the primary mode of production in a capitalist framework (Giddens & Sutton, 2013).
    • Capitalism Defined: A commodity production system aimed at market exchange, focused on profit maximization, characterized by private ownership of capital (which encompasses assets and money).
    • Market dynamics predominantly drive capital accumulation, often sidelining human needs and ethical considerations (Mullaly, 2007).
    • The capitalist class has eclipsed hereditary aristocrats, emerging as the predominant ruling entity, influencing governance significantly.
    • Labor Dynamics: Those lacking ownership must commodify their labor for wages, facing potential extremes of hardship.
    • Environmental Impact: Capitalism intensively exploits natural environments, igniting concerns over sustainability.

CLASSICAL SOCIAL THEORY

  • Key Questions Addressed:
    • How do we comprehend modernity and its intrinsic challenges?
    • In what ways do we interpret the processes of change within this context?
    • Can we mitigate the adverse effects of modernity, share its gains, and adapt to its contradictions?
    • What possibilities exist beyond the modern experience?

ECONOMY, BONDS, POWER

  • Karl Marx (1818-1883):

    • Interpreted modernity as a capitalist force dismantling feudal and pre-modern societal structures.
    • Described capitalism as both a vastly productive and destructive production system resulting in the stark division of humanity into contrasting social classes: dominant owners versus subordinate non-owners.
    • The capitalist dynamics generate revolutionary economic forces that erode established social bonds, such as religion, family, and communal or traditional obligations, leading to poignant critiques expressed in the Communist Manifesto:
    • “All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned…”

  • Emile Durkheim (1858-1917):

    • Observed an evolutionary shift from pre-modern societal structures based on shared beliefs towards a modern framework characterized by the division of labor.
    • Coined the term “organic solidarity” suggesting that modern societies are like organisms whose integral parts rely on interdependence.
    • Advocated for equilibrium among state, market, and civil society, posing fundamental questions regarding social ties, ethics, and morality in a highly individualized and fragmented context.

  • Max Weber (1864-1921):

    • Viewed social bonds established through power and domination as opposed to mere economic interests (Marx) or moral/social links (Durkheim).
    • Characterized modernity as a rational order where life is subjected to a calculative and efficient framework, often at the emotional and ethical cost.
    • Bureaucracy was identified as the institutional form representing modern rationality, where values associated with justice and compassion are marginalized by the efficiency imperative.
    • Provoked contemplation regarding the nature of rationality and the associated risks that may jeopardize freedom.

THE EVOLUTION OF MODERNITY

  • Contemporary Layers of Modernity:
    • Questions arise regarding our current status in relation to modernity:
    • Is it further modernity, high modernity, late modernity, or post-modernity?

SOME MAJOR DILEMMAS IN SOCIAL THEORY

  1. The Nature and Nurture debate.
  2. The tension between the Individual and Society (Agency vs. Structure; Micro vs. Macro).
  3. The contrast between Consensus and Conflict.
  4. The relationship between Modernity and Social Change.
  5. Issues surrounding Identity and Difference, covering gender, sexuality, ethnicity, and race.
  6. The concept of Power, which includes “Power Over” and “Power To” dynamics.
  7. The distinction between Fact and Values.