History Study Guide: From Ancient Civilizations to Modern Statehood

Early Slavic Settlement and the Serbian Uprising

The settlement of the Slavs within the territories of the Byzantine Empire occurred during the reign of Emperor Justinian ($Justinijan$). The specific regions inhabited by the Slavs within Byzantine borders were referred to as Sklavinije ($Sklavinije$). Centuries later, the modern Serbian state began to take shape through significant military and diplomatic actions. The Second Serbian Uprising was concluded through an oral agreement between Miloš Obrenović ($Miloš\,Obrenović$) and Marašli Ali Pasha ($Marašli\,ali\,paša$). Following this, a foundational administrative structure was established via the Constitutional Act of $1811$, which introduced the first government ministers, known as the $6$ Popečitelja ($6\,Popečitelja$). Among these early leaders, the prominent philosopher and writer Dositej Obradović ($Dositej\,Obradović$) served as the first Minister of Education.

Constitutional Evolution of the Serbian Principality

Serbia's journey toward autonomy within the Ottoman Empire was formalized by the Hatti-sherif of $1833$ ($Hatišerif\,iz\,1833$). The first constitution for the Principality of Serbia, enacted in $1835$, is widely known as the Sretenje Constitution ($Sretenjski\,ustav$). This was followed by the Constitution of $1838$, which is historically referred to as the Turkish Constitution ($Turski\,ustav$). The period of the "Defenders of the Constitution" ($Ustavobranitelji$) coincided with the reign of Alexander Karađorđević ($Aleksandar\,Karađorđević$). A significant political shift occurred at the St. Andrew's Day Assembly ($Svetoandrejska\,skupština$), where Alexander Karađorđević was deposed, leading to the restoration of Miloš Obrenović to power. During this era, the Serbian Civil Code ($Srpski\,građanski\,zakonik$) was authored by Jovan Hadžić ($Jovan\,Hadžić$).

Independence and the Formation of the Serbian Kingdom

The final withdrawal of Ottoman garrisons and the formal handover of Serbian cities took place in $1867$. Shortly after, the Regency Constitution ($Namesnički\,ustav$) was enacted in $1869$ for the Principality of Serbia. Full international independence was secured at the Congress of Berlin in $1878$ ($Berlinski\,kongres\,1878$), and four years later, in $1882$, Serbia was officially proclaimed a Kingdom. The transition to a parliamentary system was introduced by the Constitution of $1888$ for the Kingdom of Serbia. Later, the Constitution of $1901$ introduced a bicameral parliamentary system consisting of a Senate ($Senat$) and a National Assembly ($Narodna\,skupština$). The political landscape was further altered by the May Coup ($Majski\,prevrat$), resulting in the assassination of King Alexander Obrenović and Queen Draga Obrenović ($Draga\,Mašin$). Subsequent to these events, the Constitution of $1903$ was enacted, which essentially represented a modification of the earlier $1888$ Constitution.

The Balkan Wars and the Creation of Yugoslavia

The First Balkan War was ended by the Peace of London on May $17$, $1913$ ($17.\,maj\,1913$), while the Second Balkan War was concluded by the Treaty of Bucharest on August $10$, $1913$ ($10.\,avgust\,1913$). During World War I, the Niš Declaration ($Niška\,deklaracija$) first proclaimed the liberation and unification of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. In $1915$, Italy entered the conflict with the signing of the Treaty of London ($Londonski\,ugovor$). The principles of equality among Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, as well as religious tolerance, were later established by the Corfu Declaration ($Krfska\,deklaracija$). The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (SHS) was officially formed on December $1$, $1918$ ($01.\,decembra\,1918$). In $1929$, the name of the state was formally changed to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ($Kraljevina\,Jugoslavija$).

Foundations of Historiography and Ancient Civilizations

Herodotus ($Herodot$) is traditionally recognized as the Father of History, while Thucydides ($Tukidit$) is considered the Father of Historiography. Ancient time-reckoning systems varied across cultures: the Greeks measured time from the first Olympic Games in $776\text{ BCE}$, while the Romans calculated time from the founding of Rome in $753\text{ BCE}$. The divide between prehistory and history is marked by the invention of writing and the emergence of the state, approximately around $3500$ BCE ($3500.\,g.p.n.e.$). Among historical sources, written records are considered the most reliable, whereas oral traditions are the least reliable. The first system of writing, cuneiform, emerged in Sumer ($Šumery$). In $24\text{ BCE}$, Sargon I the Great ($Sargon\,I\,Veliki$) established the Sumero-Akkadian Empire. One of the oldest recorded legal codes is the Code of Hammurabi ($Hamurabijev\,zakonik$).

Governance and Reform in Ancient Greece and Rome

In Ancient Egypt, the supreme ruler was the Pharaoh ($Faraon$). In Greece, Homer ($Homer$) authored the epic poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey." The Spartan state ($Sparta$) was characterized by governing bodies such as the Basileus ($Bazileuz$), Ephors ($Efori$), and the Gerousia ($Gerusija$). Athenian democracy was shaped by several reformers: Solon ($Solon$) divided citizens into $4$ classes and established the Ekklesia ($Eklesija$), while Cleisthenes ($Klisten$) introduced the practice of ostracism ($ostrakizam$). Ostracism was a form of honorable exile lasting $10$ years. Cleisthenes also structured the citizenry into $10$ territorial tribes ($fila$) and appointed $10$ Strategoi ($Strateg$). Legend states that Rome was founded by Romulus ($Romul$) in $753\text{ BCE}$. The earliest Roman governing bodies were the King ($Kralj$), the Senate ($Senat$), and the National Assembly ($Narodna\,skupština$). The abbreviation SPQR stands for Senatus Populusque Romanus ($Senatus\,populusque\,Romanus$). During the Republic, the state was led by magistrates known as Consuls ($Konzul$). The period of written law in Rome commenced with the Law of the Twelve Tables ($Zakon\,12\,tablica$).

The Late Roman Empire and medieval Foundations

The Tetrarchy ($Tetrahija$) was a system of rule by four: two Augusti ($avgusta$) and two Caesars ($cezara$). Emperor Constantine named Constantinople ($Konstantinopol$) the "Second Rome." In $313$ CE, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan ($Milanski\,edikt\,313.\,godine$), granting religious tolerance. Monarchical succession typically followed two principles: primogeniture ($primogenitura$), where the eldest son succeeds, or seniorate ($seniorat$), where the oldest male member of the dynasty takes the throne. The city of Constantinople fell twice: first in $1204$ during the Fourth Crusade, and finally on May $29$, $1453$ ($29.\,maja\,1453$). In the Frankish kingdom, Clovis ($Hlodoveh$) introduced the Salic Law in $511$ ($Salijski\,zakon\,511$). Later, the Treaty of Verdun in $843$ ($Verdunski\,ugovor\,843$) divided the Frankish realm into three parts. The act of entering into a feudal vassal relationship was known as investiture ($Investitura$).

Russian, English, and Austro-Hungarian Developments

Kievan Rus ($Kijevska\,Rusija$) was formed by the unification of the territories of Kiev and Novgorod ($Kijeva\,i\,Novograda$). In the Holy Roman Empire, the Golden Bull ($Zlatna\,bula$) of Charles IV checked royal power by allowing seven electors to choose the king. England developed a system of legal precedents known as Common Law. In the Balkans, Serbs underwent major migrations led by religious leaders: the First Migration in $1690$ led by Arsenije III Čarnojević ($Arsenije\,III\,Čarnojević$) and the Second in $1739$ led by Arsenije IV Jovanović ($Arsenije\,IV\,Jovanović$). The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of $1867$ transformed the empire into a dual monarchy. Within the Ottoman administration, the "blood tax" or Devshirme ($Danak\,u\,krvi$) involved the forced recruitment of Christian children. The holy book of Islam is the Quran ($Kuran$).

Modern Revolutions and State Building

The American Revolutionary War was triggered by the Boston Tea Party in $1773$, following an increase in tea taxes. The Declaration of Independence ($Deklaracija\,nezavisnosti$) was adopted on July $4$, $1776$ ($04.\,jula\,1776$), declaring the colonies as independent states. The US Constitution of $1787$ was the first to proclaim the principle of the separation of powers. George Washington ($Džordž\,Vašington$) became the first president of the United States. In France, Protestants were known as Huguenots ($Hugenoti$), and Louis XIV was known as the Sun King ($Luj\,XIV$). The French Revolution began on July $14$, $1789$ ($14.\,jula\,1789$) with the fall of the Bastille ($Bastilije$). The French Constitution of $1875$ established a presidential term of $7$ years. Moscow became known as the "Third Rome" ($Treći\,Rim$). Russia adopted its first constitution in $1905$. In Germany, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck ($Oto\,fon\,Bizmark$), known as the "Iron Chancellor," led the unification process. In Italy, the movement for unification was spearheaded by Piedmont ($Pijemont$). World War I concluded due to the internal collapse of empires, the October Revolution in Russia, and the entry of the United States. The October Revolution of $1917$ in Russia was conducted under the slogan "Bread, Peace, Land." Totalitarianism rose post-war with Benito Mussolini ($Benito\,Musolini$) leading Fascism in Italy and Adolf Hitler ($Adolf\,Hitler$) leading Nazism in Germany.

Legal Documents and Middle Ages Social Order

King John Lackland ($Jovan\,bez\,zemlje$) issued the Magna Carta Libertatum ($Velika\,Povelja$) in $1215$. The Hundred Years' War was fought between England and France, while the War of the Roses was a conflict between the houses of Lancaster and York ($Lankaster\,i\,Jork$). The Reformation in England resulted in the creation of the Anglican Church ($Anglikanska\,crkva$). Protective legal acts were enacted, such as the Habeas Corpus Act in $1679$ and the Bill of Rights in $1689$, which established parliamentary supremacy over the crown. The Islamic calendar is dated from the Hijra ($Hidžara$) in $622\text{ CE}$, representing Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina ($Meka\,u\,Medinu$). In the North, Vikings were also known as Normans or Norsemen ($Normani/Nordijci$). Christianity became a state religion in Russia under Prince Vladimir the Great ($Vladimir\,Veliki$). Jaroslav the Wise ($Jaroslav\,Mudri$) earned his title for enacting the first written law code, Ruska Pravda ($Ruska\,pravda$). The ruler of the Ottoman Empire held the title of Sultan ($Sultan$). In modern times, the Spanish Civil War involved nationalist forces led by General Francisco Franco ($Francisko\,Franko$).

The Medieval Serbian State

Stefan Nemanja ($Stefan\,Nemanja$) was the founder of the Nemanjić dynasty. Serbia became a kingdom in the Middle Ages in the year $1217$. The Serbian Church was elevated to the rank of autocephalous Archbishopric in $1219$, with Rastko Nemanjić, known as Saint Sava ($Sveti\,Sava$), serving as the first archbishop. Stefan Dušan ($Stefan\,Dušan$) was crowned Emperor on Easter, April $16$, $1846$ ($16.\,aprila\,1346$). His major legislative work, Dušan's Code ($Dušanov\,zakonik$), was enacted in $1349$ in Skopje and later expanded in $1354$ in Serres. The medieval Serbian state fell with the conquest of Smederevo ($Smedereva$) in $1459$. The state body that gathered prominent secular and church leaders was the Sabor ($Sabor$). The dependent population was collectively called Sebri ($Sebri$), which included Vlasi ($Vlasi$), who were nomadic herders, and Meropsi ($Meropsi$), who were dependent farmers. In medieval Bosnia, the assembly of the nobility was called the Stanak ($Stanak/Zbor$), and Tvrtko I Kotromanić ($Tvrtko\,I\,Kotromanić$) was the ruler crowned with a double crown.

Special Jurisdictions and Ottoman Society

The Republic of Dubrovnik ($Dubrovnik$) was governed by bodies such as the Grand Council ($Veliko\,veće$), Small Council ($Malo\,veće$), and the Request Council ($Veće\,umoljenih$). Ragusan merchants paid the Saint Demetrius revenue (Svetodimitarski dohodak) for the freedom of trade and movement. Saint Sava's collection of civil and ecclesiastical law is known as the Nomocanon or Zakonopravilo ($Nomokanon/Zakonopravilo$). During the reign of Despot Stefan Lazarević, the Mining Code ($Rudarski\,zakon$) was enacted. Social structure in the Ottoman Empire divided the population into the Raya ($Raja$) and privileged categories, including Christians, Spahis ($spahije$), Vlasi, Martolozi ($martolozi$), Bojnici ($bojnici$), and Derbendžije ($derbendžije$). In the early $19$th century, the Constitutional Act of $1808$ recognized Karađorđe as the supreme commander. The administrative body known as the Praviteljstvujušči Sovjet Serbski was established in $1805$.