Keywords

Foundational equality = all individuals are born equal and are therefore entitled to equal treatment by the state, connecting to formal inequality

Formal equality = equality before the law and equal possession of legal rights

Equality of opportunity = all individuals should have an equal chance to develop their potential however, that equality of opportunity usually leads to unequal outcomes, arising from unequal abilities

Social contract = the state should be a deal between the government and the government, where the governed defer to the government only if the state guarantees a certain outcome, such as the protection of natural rights (Locke and Rousseau)

Meritocracy = both society and the state should reward individual effort and achievement, rather than inherited advantage; society and the state should be led by individuals who have proved their abilities and talents

Mechanistic theory = human beings are rational and can build a state that reflects their needs (e.g. the need for freedom and self-fulfilment), rejecting the divine right of kings (John Locke)

Tolerance/harm principle = views and actions we dislike should still be tolerated, as long as they do not harm the liberty of others

Limited government = the opposite of arbitrary rule; the state should be limited in terms of what it can do and how it can do it by a formal constitution (arguably a form of social contract)

Egotistical individualism = human beings are naturally drawn to the advancement of their own, selfish interests but because we are rational, this does not necessarily lead to conflict or an insensitivity to the wishes of others

Developmental individualism = a focus on what humans can become (explains J. S. Mill's emphasis on education in a liberal society)

Negative freedom = individuals are free from interference by both governments and other individuals

Positive freedom = the state gives people the empowerment and the enhancement of individual capabilities to live a self-directed and fulfilling existence

Laissez-faire capitalism = an economy where private enterprise and market forces exist with minimal interference from the state

Keynesianism = based on the work of economist John Maynard Keynes, involving the state directing and managing market forces to ensure steady growth, full employment and therefore greater individual liberty

Minimal state = reflects the concept of negative liberty by minimising state activities, such as legislating and taxing as infrequently as possible

Enabling state = a state that has been extended so its activities liberate individuals from social and economic problems, thus enabling them to fulfil their potential

Individualism

= the primacy of the individual in society over any group

Egotistical = human beings are fundamentally driven by self-interest

Therefore, every individual seeks:

• self-realisation - to discover our true and unique selves, free from the constraints and expectations of others, and unhindered by the conventions of society

• self-determination - to ensure we are the masters of our fate and that the realities of our lives can be attributed to our efforts and achievements

• self-fulfilment - to ensure we have fully utilised our 'natural rights' and made the most of our particular talents

Developmental = human nature is constantly progressing and developing through greater knowledge, improved understanding of the world around us, and greater education

Links strongly to the doctrine of utility, which asserts that human beings are guided by the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain (J. S. Mill)

Liberty

= the ability and right to make decisions in your interests based on your view of human nature

Individual freedom is guaranteed through:

• safeguarding natural rights (e.g. life, liberty and property)

• the rule of law

• limited government

• the judiciary

• free-market economics

• (potentially) democracy

Freedom and individualism both:

• emphasise self-determination and self-reliance

• the pursuit of happiness

• tolerance

• development

Freedom is ‘under the law,' meaning that everyone is equal before the law, regardless of their position in society

State

= it is ‘necessary’ to avoid disorder, but ‘evil’ as it has the potential to remove individual liberty, thus should be limited

Concerning the liberal view of the economy, liberals support:

• minimal state

• laissez-faire capitalism

• private property rights

• competition

• macroeconomics

• equality of opportunity

Rationalism

= the belief that humans are rational creatures, capable of reason and logic

Humans are naturally rational so although they are individualist, they can still recognise when it is necessary to have a state (by consent) and laws in the best interests of the governed

Social justice

= the belief that individuals are of equal value and that they should be treated impartially and fairly by society

Foundational equality = people are born equal

Formal equality = people are equal before the law

Equality of opportunity = individual is born equal with equal natural rights and should therefore be treated equally, to provide everyone with the equal opportunity for self-fulfilment

Liberal democracy

= a democracy that balances the will of the people, as shown through elections, with limited government (state) and respect for civil liberties in society

Classical liberals were wary of democracy, fearing that it endangered natural rights and tolerance

Modern liberals began championing the extension of the state, to start the enfranchisement of minority groups and support democratic devolution. However, modern liberals also show little interest, for example, in direct democracy and referendums due to fears that they represent a tyranny of the majority