history test flash cards
A widespread shortage of food often caused by crop failure, war, or climate change; during this period, famine sometimes followed events like the Little Ice Age, devastating populations in Europe and Asia.
Eunuchs:
Castrated men employed in royal courts, particularly in China under the Ming and Qing dynasties, who held administrative power and were trusted as loyal servants to the emperor.
Missionaries:
Religious figures, often Catholic (Jesuits, Franciscans, Dominicans), who traveled globally—especially to the Americas, Africa, and Asia—to spread Christianity as part of European imperial expansion.
Imperialism:
The policy of extending a nation’s authority through conquest, colonization, or economic domination; exemplified by European empires (Spain, Portugal, Britain, France, Netherlands) during global exploration.
Plantation:
Large agricultural estates in the Americas producing cash crops (sugar, tobacco, cotton) using enslaved African or indentured labor, central to the Atlantic economy.
Circumnavigate:
To sail completely around the world; first achieved by Ferdinand Magellan’s expedition (1519–1522), proving the global scale of Earth and maritime navigation.
Duties (as in trade):
Taxes or tariffs imposed on imported and exported goods by states to control trade and increase revenue, important in mercantilist economies.
Scurvy:
A disease caused by vitamin C deficiency, common among sailors on long voyages before fresh produce could be preserved.
Galleons:
Large, multi-decked sailing ships used by European powers, especially Spain, for oceanic trade and warfare, key to trans-Atlantic and Manila Galleon trade routes.
Indentured Laborers (Servants):
Workers who agreed to labor for a set number of years (often 4–7) in exchange for passage to the Americas; widely used in British colonies before African slavery dominated.
Cash Crop:
A crop grown primarily for sale rather than subsistence, such as sugar, tobacco, and cotton; major drivers of plantation economies.
Sovereign:
A supreme ruler or monarch possessing independent authority; in this period, nation-states emphasized sovereign power over religion (absolutism).
Divine right:
Chosen from god to rule
Janissaries:
Elite infantry units of the Ottoman Empire made up of enslaved Christian boys converted to Islam; they were loyal to the Sultan and central to Ottoman military might.
Conservatives:
In early modern context, those favoring traditional political and religious order, particularly defenders of monarchy and church authority.
Liberal:
Originally referring to those who supported reform, individual rights, and limitations on monarchical power; emerged more strongly in the Enlightenment era (late 17th–18th centuries).
Imam:
In Islam, a religious leader guiding prayer and community life; in Shi’a Islam, also a divinely inspired leader descended from Ali.
Metropolitan:
A high-ranking bishop or church official overseeing multiple dioceses; significant in the Christian church hierarchy, especially in Eastern Orthodoxy.
Suppress:
To forcibly end or restrain movements, ideas, or uprisings; e.g., monarchs suppressing religious dissent or revolts.
Theocracy:
A government ruled by religious leaders or based on divine authority, such as Calvin’s Geneva or early Puritan Massachusetts Bay Colony.
🏰 Identifications (1450–1750)
Marco Polo:
Venetian traveler whose 13th-century accounts of Asia inspired later explorers during the Age of Exploration to seek new trade routes to the East.
Pieces of Eight (Pesos de Ocho):
Spanish silver coins widely used in global trade; became the first global currency connecting the Americas, Europe, and Asia via the Manila Galleon trade.
Henry the Navigator:
Portuguese prince who sponsored early voyages of exploration along the African coast, helping initiate the Age of Discovery.
Columbian Exchange:
The global transfer of plants, animals, people, diseases, and ideas between the Old World and New World following Columbus’s voyages; reshaped ecosystems and societies.
Vasco de Balboa:
Spanish explorer who crossed the Isthmus of Panama (1513) and was the first European to see the Pacific Ocean from the Americas.
Ferdinand Magellan:
Portuguese navigator whose expedition (1519–1522) was the first to circumnavigate the globe, demonstrating the Earth’s true size and interconnected oceans.
Sir Francis Drake:
English privateer who circumnavigated the globe (1577–1580), raided Spanish ships, and contributed to England’s naval power.
Vitus Bering:
Danish explorer in Russian service who explored the North Pacific and the Bering Strait, linking Russian expansion to North America.
James Cook:
British explorer who mapped the Pacific, including Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii, expanding European geographic knowledge.
Hernán Cortés:
Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztec Empire (1519–1521), enabling Spain to claim Mexico and its wealth.
Queen Nzinga:
Ruler of Ndongo (Angola) who resisted Portuguese colonization and the Atlantic slave trade through diplomacy and warfare.
Dutch VOC (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie):
The Dutch East India Company (founded 1602), one of the first joint-stock companies, which dominated Indian Ocean trade and colonized parts of Asia.
British East India Company:
Chartered in 1600, it expanded British influence in India through trade and military control, becoming a major colonial power.
Triangular Trade:
Transatlantic trade network linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas: manufactured goods to Africa, slaves to the Americas, and raw materials to Europe.
The Middle Passage:
The brutal leg of the Triangular Trade where enslaved Africans were transported across the Atlantic to the Americas.
Encomienda:
Spanish labor system granting colonists control over indigenous labor in exchange for Christianizing them; often led to severe exploitation.
The Balkans:
Region in southeastern Europe under Ottoman rule; a crossroads of cultures and religions, strategically important to the empire.
Martin Luther:
German monk who initiated the Protestant Reformation (1517) by challenging Catholic practices, emphasizing salvation by faith alone.
95 Theses:
Luther’s list of grievances against the Catholic Church (1517), criticizing indulgences and papal corruption, sparking widespread reform.
Johannes Gutenberg:
Inventor of the printing press (c. 1450), revolutionizing communication and enabling the rapid spread of Reformation and Renaissance ideas.
Henry VIII:
English king who broke from the Catholic Church to form the Church of England after being denied an annulment; expanded royal power.
John Calvin (Calvinism):
French reformer whose teachings emphasized predestination and strict moral discipline; influenced Protestant communities in Europe.
Jesuits:
Members of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius of Loyola; Catholic missionaries who spread Christianity globally and reasserted Catholicism during the Counter-Reformation.
30 Years War (1618–1648):
Devastating religious conflict in Central Europe between Catholics and Protestants; ended with the Peace of Westphalia, recognizing state sovereignty.
Spanish Inquisition:
Religious court established to enforce Catholic orthodoxy in Spain; targeted heretics, Jews, Muslims, and Protestants.
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644):
Chinese dynasty known for its strong centralized government, maritime exploration under Zheng He, and later isolationism.
Yongle Emperor:
Ming ruler who sponsored Zheng He’s voyages, rebuilt the Great Wall, and moved the capital to Beijing, constructing the Forbidden City.
Qing Dynasty (1644–1911):
Manchu-led dynasty succeeding the Ming; expanded China’s borders and ruled with a blend of Chinese and Manchu traditions.
Tokugawa Ieyasu:
Founder of the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603–1868) in Japan; unified the country and established a long period of peace and isolation.
Daimyo:
Powerful feudal lords in Japan who controlled land and samurai armies under the shogun’s authority.
Samurai:
Warrior class of feudal Japan serving the daimyo; bound by bushido (the way of the warrior).
Shogun:
Military ruler of Japan who held real power over the emperor; Tokugawa shoguns centralized authority and isolated Japan from foreign influence.
1. What did Western European countries have in common as they pursued global exploration?
All sought wealth, trade routes, and converts to Christianity. Motivated by “God, Gold, and Glory,” they developed improved navigation, used joint-stock companies, and competed for overseas colonies to enhance national power under mercantilism.
2. Why did some Native Americans aid the Spanish in their initial invasion of the New World?
Some Native groups (like the Tlaxcalans) aided the Spanish to defeat rival empires, especially the Aztecs and Incas. They hoped alliances with the Spanish would give them political advantage or protection from long-time enemies.
3. How did the British and Portuguese/Spanish colonies differ in their goals?
Spanish/Portuguese: Focused on extracting wealth (gold, silver, sugar) through timperial control, forced labor (encomienda, slavery), and conversion of natives.
British: Sought permanent settlements, religious refuge, and self-governing colonies; more emphasis on agriculture and trade than direct royal control.
4. How did Chinese and Russian expansion into Central Asia affect nomadic peoples?
Both conquered steppe territories, destroying nomadic independence. The nomads’ grazing lands were settled, taxed, and farmed, leading to the decline of pastoral societies and the rise of centralized agrarian empires.
5. Global outcomes of European empires in the Americas:
Creation of a global economy linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
Demographic collapse of Native Americans from disease.
Atlantic slave trade expansion.
Columbian Exchange of crops, animals, and ideas reshaped diets and populations worldwide.
Emergence of European dominance in world trade and naval power.
6. How did the global silver trade create the first world economy?
Silver from the Americas (Potosí, Mexico) flowed to Europe and China, linking global markets. Spain used silver to buy Asian goods, especially silk and porcelain, through the Manila Galleon trade—making silver the first truly global currency.
7. The number of slaves shipped from Africa to the Americas peaked in what century?
The 18th century (1700s) saw the highest number of enslaved Africans transported—over 6 million—mainly to Caribbean and South American plantations.
8. Most common destinations for West African slaves:
Brazil (largest number)
Caribbean sugar islands (Barbados, Jamaica, Saint-Domingue/Haiti)
Only a small percentage went to North America.
9. Why did African slavery in the New World differ from earlier slavery?
It became racial, hereditary, and plantation-based. Unlike classical slavery (war captives or debt slaves), Atlantic slavery was driven by economic demand, racial ideology, and mass production of cash crops.
10. Why did the Ming government stop exploration of the Indian Ocean?
After Zheng He’s voyages (1405–1433), Ming officials saw little value in foreign trade, viewing it as wasteful and a threat to Confucian order. They turned inward to focus on defense and internal stability.
11. What does the British Africa Company excerpt indicate about Africans’ relationship with Europeans?
African rulers exercised sovereign control over trade. Europeans were dependent on African cooperation, not dominant, in early stages of the slave trade.
12. Why did the trans-Atlantic slave trade develop in the 16th century?
European plantations in the Americas needed cheap labor after Native American populations declined from disease. Africans were already part of existing coastal trade networks, making them accessible to European buyers.
13. How did the Protestant Reformation spread?
Through printing presses, translation of the Bible, and support from political leaders who sought independence from Rome. Printing (Gutenberg) allowed rapid distribution of reform ideas across Europe.
14. Why did Martin Luther post the 95 Theses?
He protested Catholic Church corruption, especially indulgences, and called for reform based on faith and scripture alone, not papal authority.
15. Which Muslim empire imposed Shia Islam as the state religion?
The Safavid Empire (Persia/Iran) under Shah Ismail made Twelver Shi’ism the official religion, differentiating it from its Sunni neighbors (Ottomans, Mughals).
16. How did the Ming Dynasty end?
Weak leadership, economic strain, corruption, and peasant rebellions (like the Li Zicheng revolt) weakened the dynasty, leading to its fall and Manchu conquest, establishing the Qing Dynasty in 1644.
17. Relationship between Tokugawa Shogunate and the outside world:
Japan adopted sakoku (closed-country policy)—strict isolation from most foreign contact. Trade was limited to the Dutch and Chinese at Nagasaki, and Christianity was banned to prevent foreign influence.
18. Major goals of Peter the Great of Russia:
Modernize and westernize Russia’s military, navy, and government.
Expand territory westward for access to warm-water ports.
Reduce power of nobility and bring the Orthodox Church under state control.
19. Similarities between Tokugawa Japan and post-classical Christendom:
Both had feudal hierarchies (lords/vassals), strong religious institutions, and regional fragmentation that was later unified under strong rulers (Shoguns / Monarchs). Both balanced faith with centralized authority.
20. What does Akbar’s policy reveal?
He promoted religious tolerance, blended cultural traditions, and sought to unify diverse peoples under Mughal rule by ending discrimination against Hindus (abolishing jizya, building temples).
21. Akbar’s policies were most similar to which other empire?
Comparable to the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman the Magnificent, which also allowed religious diversity and local autonomy (millet system).
22. Cultural consequences of Luther’s teachings:
Encouraged literacy and education, spread vernacular languages, and promoted individual faith and conscience over church hierarchy—transforming European cultural life.
23. Religious consequences of Luther’s teachings:
Led to the fragmentation of Western Christianity—formation of Protestant denominations, Catholic Counter-Reformation, and wars of religion (e.g., 30 Years War).
24. Akbar’s policy toward Hindus (Mughal Empire):
He pursued inclusivity, abolished the jizya tax, allowed Hindus in government, and supported interfaith dialogue—strengthening Mughal unity.
25. Japanese shoguns’ attitude toward Christian Europeans:
Initially tolerant for trade, but later hostile, fearing Christianity would undermine loyalty to the shogun. They persecuted Christians and expelled missionaries by the 1630s.
26. Maroon treaty with British (Jamaica, 1739):
Evidence of resistance to slavery and European control. The Maroons’ rebellion and negotiated autonomy show how enslaved Africans fought colonial oppression across the Americas.
27. The passage could explain which development?
Formation of maroon societies—independent communities of escaped slaves—and broader resistance movements against European colonial systems in the Americas.
✍ Short Answers
Causes of European westward exploration:
Driven by desire for Asian trade goods, new sea routes after Ottoman control of Silk Roads, Christian missionary zeal, and competition for wealth and glory among monarchies. Technological advances like the caravel, compass, and astrolabe made long-distance voyages possible.
Factors contributing to predominance of African slaves:
Native depopulation in the Americas.
Africans’ experience with tropical agriculture and immunity to diseases.
Existing African slave markets accessible to Europeans.
Enormous demand for labor on sugar, tobacco, and cotton plantations.
How Tokugawa rule transformed Japan:
Tokugawa Ieyasu centralized power, reduced daimyo autonomy, and established peace after centuries of warfare. The shogunate promoted urbanization, commerce, and education, while isolating Japan from Western influence for over 200 years.