Exam Study Notes
Post-War Expansion and Diplomacy
John Quincy Adams' Role:
As Secretary of State under President Monroe, Adams skillfully negotiated treaties.
These treaties defined U.S. borders and facilitated the acquisition of new territories.
Adams-Onis Treaty (1819): The US acquired Florida from Spain.
International Tensions:
Revolutions in Central and South America created international tensions as these regions sought independence from Spain.
The U.S. recognized these new South American nations, primarily to establish trade relations.
The Monroe Doctrine
Mutual Non-Interference:
Addressed to European powers, the doctrine stated: "You stay out of the Americas, and we'll stay out of your squabbles."
Assertion of Authority:
The U.S. claimed the right to intervene in the Western Hemisphere if its security was threatened.
Effectiveness of the Doctrine:
No European country directly challenged the Monroe Doctrine by interceding in the Americas.
This was largely due to the strength of the British navy, not necessarily fear of the American military.
Significance:
The Monroe Doctrine is the first of several significant "doctrines" in American foreign policy.
It established that the Western Hemisphere was closed to future European colonization.
Combined with Washington's Farewell Address, it promoted American neutrality until World War I.
The Missouri Compromise (1820)
Context:
Expansion led to debates over slavery.
In 1820, the U.S. had 22 states: 11 slave and 11 free.
Missouri's Application for Statehood:
Missouri, carved out of the Louisiana Purchase, sought statehood as a slave state, which threatened the existing balance in the Senate.
Terms of the Compromise (brokered by Henry Clay):
(1) Missouri was admitted as a slave state.
(2) Maine was carved out of Massachusetts and admitted as a free state.
(3) A line was drawn along the 36°30' parallel across the Louisiana Territory.
(4) Slavery would be prohibited north of this line, except for Missouri.
Impact:
The compromise temporarily forestalled the Civil War.
It led to the split of the Democratic-Republican coalition, ending their 20-year control of national politics.
Election of 1824
Turning Point: The election of 1824 marked a significant shift in presidential elections.
Electoral College:
Prior to 1824, electors were chosen by various methods, often by state legislatures.
By 1824, most states allowed voters to directly choose presidential electors.
Decline of Congressional Caucuses:
Previously, congressional caucuses chose party nominees, and electors usually confirmed those choices.
With increased direct voting, there was less support for candidates chosen by party leaders.
Candidates:
In 1824, the Democratic-Republican caucus chose William H. Crawford.
John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and Andrew Jackson challenged this nomination.
Results:
Jackson received the most popular and electoral votes but did not win a majority.
The election was decided in the House of Representatives.
Clay, as Speaker of the House, supported Adams, giving him the victory.
Controversy:
Adams named Clay Secretary of State, leading to accusations of a "corrupt bargain."
Opponents vowed to remove both in the 1828 election.
Constitutional Note: The top three electoral vote-getters go to the House election if no majority is won.
John Quincy Adams' Presidency
Opposition:
Adams faced opposition from a Congress that largely supported Jackson.
His Federalist background led to suspicion regarding his efforts to strengthen the central government.
Policy Thwarting:
Jackson's supporters, favoring states' rights, blocked Adams's initiatives like protective tariffs, interstate highways, and federal schools.
Achievements: Founded a naval college and became an influential congressman.
Postmillennialism:
Many Christians believed Jesus would return after a thousand-year golden age created by human effort.
Adams was an adherent of this progressive view.
The Jackson Presidency and Jacksonian Democracy
Voter Support: Jackson assembled a support network to ensure wide popular support.
Emergence of the Democratic Party: A coalition of state political organizations, newspaper publishers, and community leaders rallied around Jackson, forming the basis of the modern Democratic Party.
Campaign Tactics:
The campaign was notably vicious, with surrogates engaging in mudslinging.
Accusations included claims of corruption against Adams and allegations of violent behavior and drunkenness against Jackson.
Jackson was particularly angered by accusations regarding his wife's marital status.
The Coffin Handbill accused Jackson of murdering enlisted men during the Indian Wars.
Election of 1828: Jackson won by a large margin, becoming the first president not born in Virginia or named Adams.
Spoils System: Jackson dismissed numerous government officials and replaced them with political supporters.
Jacksonian Democracy:
Replaced Jeffersonian republicanism.
Benefited from universal white manhood suffrage.
Characterized by a strong presidency.
Jackson challenged Congress and the Supreme Court.
Indian Removal Act and the Trail of Tears
Background:
The policy of moving Native Americans westward was a continuation of past policies.
The British had established the concept of Native Americans as "foreign nations."
Jefferson had suggested assimilation as a solution to the "Indian Problem."
Five Civilized Tribes:
By Jackson's presidency, the Cherokee, among other tribes, had developed written language, converted to Christianity, embraced agriculture, and even owned enslaved people.
Conflict with Georgia:
Gold was discovered on Cherokee land, leading to demands that they comply with the Indian Removal Act.
The act required Native Americans to resettle in Oklahoma (Indian territory).
Jackson's Stance: Jackson argued that moving away from white society would protect Native Americans from encroachment and allow them to maintain their traditions.
Legal Battles:
The Cherokees resisted removal and took their case to the Supreme Court.
In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) and Worcester v. Georgia (1832), Chief Justice John Marshall sided with the Cherokees.
However, Jackson refused to enforce the Court's decisions.
Trail of Tears:
Between 1835 and 1838, thousands of Cherokees were forcibly moved to Oklahoma under U.S. Army supervision.
Thousands died from sickness and starvation along the way.
Seminole Resistance: The Seminole in Florida resisted removal, leading to the Seminole War, which the U.S. eventually abandoned.
The Nullification Crisis
Doctrine of Nullification:
The idea that individual states can disobey federal laws they deem unconstitutional. First expressed in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions.
John Marshall established the Supreme Court's power of judicial review in Marbury v. Madison (1803).
Tariff of Abominations (1828):
Passed during the Adams administration, it became a crisis under Jackson.
John C. Calhoun anonymously published "The South Carolina Exposition and Protest," arguing states could nullify the tariff.
Southern Opposition:
Southern states openly discussed nullification because the protective tariffs hindered trade with Britain, affecting cotton sales and purchases of British goods.
Jackson's Response: Jackson, though a supporter of states' rights, opposed nullification as a threat to the Union.
The Bank of the United States
19th-Century Banking: Paper money was issued by private banks, not the government.
Bank Practices: Banks would print money for loans without needing an equivalent amount of gold in reserve.
Bank of the United States as Regulator:
The government paid taxes at the Bank of the United States.
The Bank ensured private banks did not over print money.
Jackson's Opposition:
Jackson opposed and ultimately dismantled the Bank of the United States.
Consequences:
After the Bank of the United States was dismantled, private banks increased and printed more bank notes
The government stopped accepting paper money for land, and people realized paper money was nearly worthless.
Only gold and silver were considered valuable causing an eventual depression.