Social Theory Notes
Introduction to Sociological Theories
Humans are social beings, making the study of social interaction a fundamental concern.
A specialist interest in the social aspect of human existence emerged around the beginning of the nineteenth century in Europe.
Prior to sociological approaches, 'naturalistic' and 'individualistic' explanations dominated.
Naturalistic explanations attribute social behaviour to inherited dispositions.
Individualistic explanations focus on unique psychological qualities of individuals.
Sociological theories contrast with these non-social approaches by emphasizing social influences.
Naturalistic Theories
Naturalistic explanations are common, such as the idea that it is natural for a man and a woman to marry and have children.
Deviations from these 'natural' practices are often considered unnatural.
If human behaviour were solely based on inherent disposition, variations in social norms would be difficult to explain.
Human behaviour varies depending on social settings.
Individualistic Theories
Sociological theories emphasize that human belief and action are products of social influences.
Theories differ on the nature of these influences and how they should be investigated.
Three kinds of theory: Consensus, conflict and action theories.
Society as a Structure of Rules: Structural-Consensus Theory
Structural-consensus theory explains social order through learned behaviour, emphasizing socialization.
Socialization is the process of learning expected behaviours in social settings.
Societies differ because behaviours considered appropriate within them differ.
Consensus sociologists use the term culture to describe the rules that govern thought and behaviour in a society.
Individuals learn 'how things are done' in a society and, through socialization, behave similarly.
Cultural rules determine or structure behaviour, channeling actions in certain ways.
Positions in a social structure are called roles; the rules that structure these roles are called norms.
Values are summaries of approved ways of living, forming a base for particular norms.
Socialization into norms and values produces consensus, essential for social survival.
In complex societies, competing norms and values may exist (e.g., views on working mothers).
Consensus theorists attribute differences in behaviour and attitude to alternative cultural influences in different social settings.
Educational Inequality: A Consensus Theory Analysis
Educational research shows a strong link between achievement and class membership, gender, and ethnic origin.
Consensus theorists explain this using norms, values, socialization, and culture.
Explanation of working-class underachievement:
Identify cultural influences that propel middle-class children to academic success.
Identify cultural influences that hinder working-class children.
Consensus Theory: Conclusion
Different patterns of behaviour result from different patterns of socialization.
Despite cultural differences, an overall consensus prevails in societies due to core values.
Central values in capitalist society: economic growth, democratic institutions, rule of law, individual freedom within the law.
Central values form the backbone of social structures, sustained by socialization.
Social life is made possible by social structures of cultural rules.
Society as a Structure of Inequality
The Influence of Advantages and Disadvantages on Behavior
Sociologists argue that society determines behaviour by structuring or constraining it.
The primary influence on social life is the distribution of advantage and its impact on behaviour.
Unequal distribution of advantages or 'life chances'.
Structural-Conflict Theory
Objection to structural-consensus theory: people are constrained not only by norms and values but also by their life chances within structures of inequality.
Emphasis on the effects of unequal distribution of advantage is associated with structural-conflict theory.
The origin and persistence of inequality lie in the domination of disadvantaged groups by advantaged ones.
Conflict theories focus on the inherent conflict of interests between the 'haves' and 'have-nots'.
Conflict theory is interested in the conflict, not consensus, inherent in unequal societies.
Conflict theory posits a conflict of interest between the advantaged and disadvantaged.
Ideas as Instruments of Power
Consensus theory: behaviour results from socialization into cultural rules, leading to consensus.
Conflict theory: behaviour is determined by the unequal distribution of rewards and advantages.
Structures of inequality survive by:
Preventing the disadvantaged from seeing themselves as underprivileged.
Persuading them that the inequality is fair.
This is achieved through control and manipulation of cultural rules (norms and values).
Conflict theorists examine the content of cultural rules to see who benefits.
They investigate whether some groups benefit more and have greater influence in constructing and interpreting the rules.
Socialization into these rules becomes an instrument of power for the advantaged.
Ideas exercising power: the example of gender inequality legitimation
Gender inequality demonstrates male advantages over women in British society.
Potential conflict of interests between men and women exists: It is in men's interests for women not to compete in large numbers for the limited number of highly rewarded jobs. It is in men's interests for women to stay at home and provide domestic services for them.
Conflict theorists see this as norms and values working in the interests of one section of society against another.
Women are forced to accept a subordinate role through learned ideas.
Conflict Theory: Conclusion
Structural-conflict theories are based on:
Social structures consist of unequally advantaged groups in conflict; inequality results from domination and exploitation.
Social order is maintained by force.
Consensus Theory vs. Conflict Theory
Both theories see social life as originating from structural influences, but they disagree on what outside society consists of.
Consensus theory emphasizes the primacy of culture, while conflict theory emphasizes conflict and sees culture as perpetuating inequality.
Society as the Creation of its Members
The Influence of Interpretation on Behaviour
A third sociological theory explains social order through the influence of individual behaviour towards others.
Focus is on individual social encounters rather than general cultural rules or unequal distribution of advantage.
Social life is based on humans' ability to interpret the world and act accordingly.
This is called interpretive, or action theory.
Action Theory
Action theorists focus on the micro-level of social life and individual interactions.
For action theorists, societies are the result of human interaction, not its cause.
Understanding social order requires looking at how individual humans interact.
Some human action is involuntary (sneezing, blinking); other action is voluntary, based on conscious decisions.
Humans choose between courses of action to achieve a goal.
Our interpretations of the world around us determine our actions.
Most situations we define in order to choose how to act are social; they involve other humans doing things.
Meaningful Social Interaction
Most of the time when we interact with other humans, they want us to arrive at certain interpretations of their actions - they want us to think one thing of them rather than another.
Pedestrians in London streets do not wave to taxi-drivers to want to become their friends, they do so because they want a lift.
Dress and gestures can often organize interpretation.
The most effective symbols humans have at their disposal are words - linguistic symbols.
Action theorists are often interested in the way we use language to exchange meanings with each other.
Societies are made up of individuals engaging in meaningful encounters, resulting in social order.
Society is an order created by the members themselves.
The Social Construction of Reality
Structural theorists see society as a 'real' thing existing outside its members.
Interpretivists find it difficult to describe a society that is the outcome of interpretation as somehow 'true' or 'real' in this structural sense.
Interpretations of what is going on here can only ever be considered 'correct' or 'true' for the particular person doing the interpreting.
What matters is not so much that you are right, that you see what is really happening, but that you cannot help but come to some sort of interpretation or other (even if it is that you do not know what is happening), and what you decide to do will be the result of this interpretation.
Initial action, though always involving interpretation, can never be assumed to be definitely 'true' or 'real'.
Action Theory: Conclusion
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