Reconstruction, Radical Change, and the Rise of Jim Crow

Casualty Statistics and Demographics: - The war resulted in approximately $750,000$ total deaths. - This equates to an average of $504$ deaths per day throughout the conflict. - Roughly $2.5\%$ of the total United States population perished in the war.
Status of Enslaved People: - Based on $1860$ data, there were approximately $4,000,000$ enslaved people in the United States prior to the full implementation of Reconstruction efforts.

Legal Grounds for Impeachment: - President Andrew Johnson was impeached for a "misdemeanor in office" after he unlawfully issued a written order for the removal of Edwin M. Stanton from his position without the required permission.
Political Context: - The impeachment was the culmination of significant and persistent disagreements between Johnson and Congress. - Central to these disputes was the protection of freedoms and rights for formerly enslaved individuals.

The 13th Amendment ( $1865$ ): - This amendment officially banned the institution of slavery within the United States. - Congress recognized that the mere end of the war was insufficient and that freedom required explicit constitutional protection.
The 14th Amendment ( $1868$ ): - Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States. - Guaranteed "equal protection" under the law and the right to "due process."
The 15th Amendment ( $1870$ ): - Prohibited the disenfranchisement (deprivation of services or rights) of citizens based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. - This amendment specifically targeted the protection of voting rights.

Primary Purpose: - To aid formerly enslaved people in their transition to freedom by striving to ensure equality in areas such as labor and education.
Specific Goals and Rationale: - Land Management: Tasked with managing lands and overseeing issues involving freedpeople; this was based on the belief that freedom required federal support and supervision. - Immediate Aid: Provided temporary shelter and essential aid because freedpeople required immediate support for survival. - Economic Independence: Worked to provide possible access to land, under the principle that true freedom required economic self-sufficiency.

Candidates and Platforms: - Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican): Supported equal rights, advocated for pensions for Union Veterans, and highlighted the Democratic Party’s historical connections to the Confederacy. - Samuel Tilden (Democrat): Called for the reaffirmation of amendments, claimed Congressional Reconstruction was coercive and corrupt, advocated for the conservation of public lands, and pushed for civil service reform.
Election Outcome: - Samuel Tilden won the popular vote.
The Compromise of $1877$ : - To resolve the disputed election, Democrats agreed to allow Rutherford B. Hayes to become President. - In exchange, the federal government agreed to end the military occupation of the South. - Reconstruction officially concluded in March/April of $1877$ .

Failure of Enforcement: - After Reconstruction, there was a lack of enforcement regarding the new laws and amendments meant to protect African Americans. Punishments for violating these protections were rarely administered.
Legal Backslide: - Both Southern and Northern states passed new laws designed to undermine equality and severely restrict the rights and freedoms of African Americans.
Civil Rights Act of $1875$ vs. $1883$ Ruling: - The $1875$ Act intended to guarantee access to accommodations and facilities regardless of race. - In $1883$ , the Supreme Court declared this act Unconstitutional, ruling it was not authorized by the 13th or 14th Amendments.
Definition and Origin of ‐Jim Crow‐: - These were state and local laws legalizing racial segregation. - The name originated from a character created by white performer Thomas Dartmouth Rice, who performed in blackface. - "Jim Crow" evolved from a racial slur into a term referring to the systemic racist laws and restricted rights that existed approximately from $1865$ to $1968$ .
Societal Impact: - The South returned to a social structure similar to the pre-Civil War era. - Any defiance of these norms was frequently met with violence or death.

The ‐One-Eighth Rule‐: - Utilized by most states to define black identity; it required proof of three full generations without African heritage to be considered white.
The ‐One Great-Grandparent‐ Rule: - Under this rule, having only one great-grandparent of African heritage was sufficient for the state to classify an individual as African American.

The Catalyst for the Case: - The "Citizens Committee," a civil rights group, organized a protest against the Separate Car Act, a Louisiana law requiring separate train cars for black and white passengers. - They recruited Homer Plessy, who was $\frac{7}{8}$ white and possessed white skin but was classified as black by Louisiana law.
The Incident: - Plessy purchased a ticket for the white car. Because he was legally considered black, his presence there was illegal, leading to his arrest.
Legal Arguments: - Plessy's Defense: Lawyers from the Citizens Committee argued that Plessy's civil rights under the 13th and 14th Amendments were violated. - The State's Position: Ferguson argued that the state of Louisiana possessed the power to set rules and regulations for railroad business within its borders.
Supreme Court Ruling and the ‐Separate but Equal‐ Doctrine: - Plessy appealed to the Supreme Court, arguing that separate cars implied inferiority, much like slavery (violating the 13th Amendment). - The Court ruled for Ferguson, stating that distinguishing by race did not destroy equality. - The Court held that the 14th Amendment was intended for "legal equality," not "social equality." - This established the "Separate but Equal" doctrine: Segregation was legalized as long as the separate facilities provided for black and white citizens were deemed equal.