9/11 and the Forever Wars: A Definitive Study Guide
The Events of September 11, 2001
The Hijacking Plan: * On a clear fall morning, September 11, 2001, 19 hijackers took control of four commercial aircraft. * Departure Locations: Two planes departed from Boston, and two departed from New York. * Selection Criteria for Aircraft: The planes were specifically selected for two reasons: * Expected low passenger loads. * High fuel loads because the flights were transcontinental, heading toward the West Coast. * Weapons Used: The hijackers were armed with box cutters—tools with plastic handles containing small razor-type blades typically used for opening packages. * Security Context: In 2001, the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) did not yet exist. Airport security was contracted out by airlines to private subcontractors. The quality of these security crews varied significantly; some were proficient, while others were clearly not.
Passenger Responses and Flight Outcomes: * Flights 1, 2, and 3: Passengers on three of the aircraft responded according to historical precedents for hijackings. They assumed the hijackers would divert the planes to a foreign country to negotiate for the release of political prisoners or money. * The Targets: The hijackers intended to turn the aircraft into weapons. Two were flown into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. A third was flown into the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. * Flight 4 (United 93): This plane was delayed in taking off. Because cell phones were a relatively new technology in 2001, a passenger was able to call someone on the ground. The person on the ground informed the passenger that other hijacked planes were being crashed into buildings. * Passenger Revolt: Realizing their situation, the passengers organized, rushed the cockpit, and fought for control. While they did not save their own lives, they ensured the plane crashed in an empty field in Pennsylvania instead of a high-profile target. Opinions differ on the intended target, but it was likely either the U.S. Capitol or the White House based on its flight path.
Casualties and Conflict Origins
The Perpetrators: * The operation involved 19 hijackers supported by roughly two dozen others in logistical roles. * Budget: The total budget for the attacks was approximately , making the operation relatively inexpensive given its impact. * Leadership: The group was led by a Saudi man named Osama bin Laden and his organization, Al Qaeda.
Casualty Figures: * Almost people were killed on that day. * Approximately people were injured. * Impact in New York: The high casualty rates in New York were due to the jet fuel burning intensely. The planes crashed roughly halfway up the towers, and the heat weakened the steel structure of the buildings, leading to their collapse.
Reasons for the Success of the Plot: * Determination and luck on the part of the hijackers. * U.S. failures in airfield security. * Intelligence failures where various pieces of information were not synthesized in time to reveal the plot. * A general lack of imagination among security officials, many of whom did not believe such an attack was possible.
Cold War Origins of Middle Eastern Entanglements
The Middle East as a Cold War Theater: * U.S. involvement in the Middle East was historically viewed through the lens of the Cold War, similar to conflicts in Vietnam and Korea. * The U.S. maintained significant sympathy for the State of Israel from its inception, categorizing it as a primary Cold War ally in the region.
Divergent Local Ideologies: * The U.S. eventually sought further allies in the region, some of whom were hostile toward Israel, creating a complex geopolitical landscape. * Arab Nationalists: These leaders were secular and non-religious. They believed Middle Eastern countries (e.g., Syria and Iraq) should be independent of colonial powers and control their own destinies as nation-states. * Islamist Fundamentalists: This group believed Islam should govern not just private life but also the state, creating theocracies where religious leaders make pivotal decisions. * Soviet Influence: During the Cold War, the Soviet Union primarily supported Arab Nationalists as a counterweight to U.S. influence.
Iran and the 1979 Revolution: * For a long time, Iran was one of the strongest U.S. allies. Its government was non-religious, modernizing, and authoritarian, utilizing secret police and prisons to violate citizen rights. This made the U.S. unpopular with the Iranian public. * The Revolution: In 1979, the monarchy was overthrown in a revolution initially led by students. It transformed Iran into a religious republic led by Shia Muslim leaders. * U.S. Embassy Crisis: Revolutionary forces took over the U.S. embassy and held American hostages for more than days before negotiating their release.
The Iraq-Iran War (1980–1988): * Saddam Hussein, a secular nationalist leader of Iraq, invaded Iran following the revolution, hoping to seize territory from a perceived weak state. * The U.S. supported Saddam Hussein and Iraq during this war, viewing him as a useful counterweight to the new Iranian regime that was hostile to American interests.
The Soviet-Afghan War: * In the late 1980s, the Soviet Union supported a secular nationalist regime in Afghanistan with troops on the ground. * Islamist fundamentalists (the Mujahideen) fought a guerrilla war against the Soviets. * The U.S. provided arms to these fundamentalists, including Osama bin Laden, to drive the Soviets out as part of Cold War strategy.
The Path to the Gulf Wars and 9/11
Regional Instability in the 1990s: * In Afghanistan, the Islamist fundamentalists eventually took power as the Taliban, ruling for most of the 1990s. * Early U.S. involvement included a peacekeeping mission in Lebanon in 1983, where a car bomb killed Marines.
The First Gulf War (1990–1991): * In August 1990, Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait. He had previously informed the U.S. ambassador of his intent, and she reportedly indicated the U.S. had no opinion on the matter. * The U.S. built a coalition to launch a land war and drive Iraq out of Kuwait but did not remove Hussein from power. * To protect Saudi Arabia from future Iraqi aggression, the U.S. kept troops stationed on Saudi soil.
Motivations for the 9/11 Attacks: * Many religious Saudis, including Osama bin Laden, were outraged by the presence of non-Muslim "infidel" troops on holy Saudi soil. This resentment fueled the organization of the September 11 attacks.
The War on Terror: Afghanistan and Iraq
The Invasion of Afghanistan: * President George W. Bush declared a "Global War on Terror." * In October 2001, the U.S. and a coalition of opposition forces invaded Afghanistan to remove the Taliban and capture Al Qaeda. * This led to a 20-year guerrilla war, the longest in U.S. history. The war ended in 2021 with the Taliban returning to power following withdrawal agreements negotiated by President Trump and executed by President Biden.
The Invasion of Iraq (2003): * The administration argued that Saddam Hussein was in league with Al Qaeda (which was false) and that Iraq was developing weapons of mass destruction, specifically nerve gas and nuclear programs (also false). * The U.S. successfully overthrew Hussein's regime through conventional warfare but became embroiled in a grinding guerrilla war that lasted over a decade.
The Modern All-Volunteer Military
Post-Vietnam Structural Changes: * The U.S. ended the military draft after Vietnam because it was deeply unpopular. The modern military is entirely voluntary. * Composition: It includes full-time professional soldiers and part-time professionals in the Army Reserves and National Guard.
Socioeconomic Factors: * Many recruits view the military as a career move or a way to acquire skills for civilian life. * The military provides a pension of half-pay after years of service. * Recruits primarily come from "working class" or lower-middle-class backgrounds, often from small towns or poor urban neighborhoods with limited economic opportunities. Very few recruits come from families with the means to send them to elite universities like Harvard.
Political Flaws in the System: * Less than of the U.S. population has served in the military during these recent wars. Because there is no draft, the majority of voters do not fear their children being forced to serve. * Funding: The wars were not funded by tax increases. Instead, they were funded by adding to the national budget deficit, meaning there was no direct economic cost to most citizens. * Lack of Incentive to End Wars: Because there is little political fallout from casualties and no direct tax burden, politicians have little incentive to end conflicts once they start.
The Mismatch of Training and Task: * The U.S. military is trained and equipped for conventional "Cold War" style battles (tanks, ships, jets). * However, in individual conflicts like Iraq and Afghanistan, soldiers were tasked with fighting guerrilla wars, for which they were not adequately trained. Lessons learned in Vietnam had been largely forgotten by the officer corps. * Tactics shifted between brutal interrogation/detainment (which created more enemies) and "winning hearts and minds" (which was difficult due to lack of local cultural and political knowledge).
The Soldier's Experience of the "Forever War"
Deployment and Rotation: * Unlike World War II (stay until won) or Vietnam (one-year individual tours), these wars used unit rotations. Whole units would deploy for months, return to the U.S. to rest, and then rotate back. * Statistics of Participation: * Approximately Americans served in Iraq or Afghanistan. * Roughly half of them served more than one tour. * individuals served at least four tours. * individuals served at least six tours.
The Nature of the Work: * Search and Destroy missions: Patrolling to draw fire so artillery or air support could engage the enemy. * IEDs (Improvised Explosive Devices): Dealing with massive booby traps on patrol routes. * Nation Building: Helping local governments (e.g., Nathan Bradley assisting in corrupt Afghan elections). * Training: Instructing Iraqi and Afghan police and soldiers. * Technological Strikes: Increased use of drone strikes to target leaders. However, intelligence was often flawed, leading to strikes on hospitals and social events, such as Afghan weddings.
War Casualty Summary Since 9/11: * Iraq War: Approximately American deaths and over civilian deaths (mostly Iraqi). * Afghanistan War: Approximately American deaths and Afghan deaths.
Questions & Discussion
Question from Marco: Marco raised several "discrepancies" regarding the official story of 9/11, claiming jet fuel does not melt steel, questioning the lack of Pentagon video footage, and noting the survival of a hijacker's passport while the building was incinerated. * Response: The instructor noted they would need to check all sources of information before exploring those claims and stated there was no time to do so in the current session.
Discussion on Andrew Bacevich: The class discussed Bacevich’s argument that most Americans only pay "lip service" to supporting the troops through spectacles (national anthems, ceremonies at basketball games) while having no real skin in the game. * Group 1 Rebuttal: Argued that modern war is different from ancient times (Hoplites provided their own shields); today, the government provides supplies via taxes. Performing ceremonies is the only way for the public to show support. * Group 2 Rebuttal: Recalled emotional patriotism from a young age, such as writing letters and sending care packages to soldiers in elementary school. * Group 3 Point: Highlighted the tax system and the VA (Veterans Affairs), noting that citizens pay for long-term veteran healthcare and benefits. * Group 4 Point: Expressed feelings of powerlessness. One student argued that citizens aren't responsible for the wars because they are driven by government "greed," regardless of how people vote. They noted that even "anti-war" candidates often support war once elected.
Final Instructor Comment: Mentioned a veteran running for Senate from Maine (name possibly Plautner) who critiques the wars as "bad stupid planning." The instructor also noted a new trend: the current tensions or potential war with Iran started with "underwater" (negative) popular opinion polling, which is a departure from previous cycles where wars started with high patriotic support.