1994 lecture

1994: End of Apartheid in South Africa & The Rwandan Genocide

Release of Nelson Mandela

  • Event: Release from Robben Island Prison on February 11, 1990

    • Background: Nelson Mandela, leader of the African National Congress (ANC), had been imprisoned since 1964.

    • Significance: His release paved the way for the end of apartheid in South Africa, culminating in his election as President in 1994.

Background: Dutch Settler Colonialism in Southern Africa

  • Timeline:

    • 1652: Founding of European settlements in Southern Cape by the Dutch East India Company.

    • By 1700: Increased Dutch migration led to the establishment of the Dutch Cape Colony.

  • Boers:

    • Definition: Dutch settlers meaning "farmers" in Afrikaans.

    • Lifestyle: Largely itinerant farmers seeking better pasture land.

    • Population: Approximately 26,000 by 1800.

    • Language: Developed a variant of Dutch.

Background 2: British Rule in Southern Africa

  • Political Changes:

    • British occupied the Cape Colony during the Napoleonic Wars; Permanent occupation began after the Battle of Blaauwberg (1806).

    • Boer dissatisfaction with British rule, notably due to the abolition of slavery in 1834, caused many to migrate in the Great Trek (1836-1852).

  • Establishment of Boer Republics:

    • South African Republic (also known as Transvaal Republic) established in 1852.

    • Orange Free State established in 1854.

  • British Interests:

    • Discovery of diamonds (1867) and significant gold deposits in 1884 led to British interest in the region.

    • Resulted in the Boer Wars (1880-81, 1899-1902) between the British Empire and Boer republics.

Racial Concentrations and Homelands

  • Racial Districts: Defined by magisterial district racial concentrations (30% or more).

    • Homelands: Areas designated for specific Black ethnic groups, where the black population exceeded 90%:

    • Major Homelands: Bophuthatswana, Transkei, and Venda claimed nominal independence.

    • Others: Areas populated by Indians, Coloreds, Whites, and Blacks were outlined by the apartheid government.

Apartheid (1948-1990-91)

  • Definition: “Apart-ness” in Afrikaans; legal racial segregation started in 1948 by the National Party government.

    • Establishment of racial classification system:

    • Categories: Bantu (Black Africans), Coloured (mixed race), White, and later Asian (Indian and Pakistani).

  • Key Legislation:

    • Population Registration Act (1950): Classified all South Africans by race.

    • Group Areas Act (1950): Assigned specific residential and business areas by race.

    • Resulted in displacement of non-white populations from designated areas.

    • Land Acts: Total of three significant acts from 1913, 1936, leading to the allocation of more than 80% of land for white ownership.

    • Pass Laws: Enforced document requirements for non-whites; interracial marriage and racial mixing prohibited.

Bantustans (Black Homelands or Black States)

  • Legislation:

    • Bantu Authorities Act (1951): Reestablished tribal organizations for Black Africans.

    • Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act (1959): Created ten Bantustans based on ethnic and linguistic groupings.

  • Bantustan Citizenship:

    • Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act (1970): Declared all Black South Africans citizens of Bantustans, stripping them of South African citizenship.

    • Administrative Control: Manipulated by the South African government to ensure compliance.

  • Independence:

    • Four Bantustans were declared independent but were never recognized internationally; all remained economically dependent on South Africa.

Nelson Mandela on Bantustans (1959)

  • Critique: Mandela criticized the apartheid government's plan for Bantustans as fundamentally flawed and misleading. He highlighted:

    • Absence of true self-governance and rights for Africans.

    • Misleading comparison to India's partition; argued for equal rights for all citizens.

  • Afrikaner Leaders' Views: Varied beliefs regarding implementation, ranging from segregationist policies to the belief in an equitable separation.

The Growth of Opposition to Apartheid (1948-1980)

  • Resistance Movements:

    • The ANC was the largest group opposing apartheid, augmented by church leaders and grassroots movements.

    • Initiated non-violent campaigns to defy apartheid laws.

  • Leadership and Imprisonment:

    • Significant leaders, including Mandela, regularly faced arrest and imprisonment; Mandela sentenced to life in prison in 1964.

  • National Party's Image: Attempts to portray the ANC as a communist threat amid Cold War tensions.

Nelson Mandela (1918-2013)

  • Background:

    • Son of Chief Henry Mandela; belonged to the Xhosa-speaking Tembu people.

    • Education: Studied law at the University of Fort Hare and the University of the Witwatersrand.

  • ANC Involvement:

    • Joined in 1944; revitalized the organization and opposed apartheid.

    • Established the first Black law practice in 1952, actively engaging in defiance campaigns.

  • Shift to Sabotage:

    • Post-Sharpeville Massacre (1960), Mandela adopted a more militant stance, co-founding Umkhonto we Sizwe.

    • Trained in guerilla tactics abroad before his arrest in 1962.

International Opposition to Apartheid

  • Global Condemnation:

    • UN declared apartheid a crime against humanity in the 1980s; annual condemnation since 1952.

    • Britain’s Commonwealth criticized the National Party; South Africa withdrew from it in 1962 to avoid expulsion.

  • Sanctions:

    • UN-sanctioned trade refusals by countries like Canada, USA, and members of the EU, though many prioritized business interests.

Cold War Context of South Africa

  • Geopolitical Struggles:

    • South Africa, under National Party rule, aligned anti-communistically with the US.

    • Important for international business, leading to continued support for apartheid despite global criticism.

Soweto Uprising and Massacre (1976)

  • Student Protests:

    • Black students opposed the imposition of Afrikaans as a medium of instruction.

  • Outcomes:

    • Over 575 fatalities due to police brutality; emergence of new youth leaders like Steve Biko galvanized the resistance.

    • Increased involvement of youth in liberation movements and violence escalated, prompting the ANC to adopt a strategy of sabotage.

Intensification of International Pressure in the 1980s

  • Global Movement:

    • Universities mobilized against apartheid through protests, demands for divestment from South Africa, highlighting global solidarity.

The Special A.K.A., “Nelson Mandela? Break Down the Door!”

  • Cultural Impact:

    • Written by Jerry Dammers, the song became a protest anthem despite being banned in South Africa; symbolized resistance and unity against apartheid.

Release of Nelson Mandela (1990)

  • Historic Event:

    • Released by President F.W. de Klerk after negotiations began; Mandela’s release marked a major turn in South African history.

    • Mutual agreements included ANC honoring civil servant contracts post-revolution.

  • Duel Roles:

    • Close relationship formed between Mandela and De Klerk as they transitioned towards a democratic system.

End of Legislated Apartheid

  • Reforms:

    • F.W. de Klerk’s government repealed apartheid laws; crucial laws included the Population Registration Act.

    • New constitution framed in 1993 facilitated equal voting rights for all racial groups, though societal segregation persisted.

1994: First Fully Democratic Election in South Africa

  • ANC Victory:

    • Mandela won the election due to calls for multi-racialism and socio-economic growth initiatives.

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)

  • Establishment:

    • Formed to address human rights violations during apartheid, led by Archbishop Desmond Tutu.

    • Promoted truth-telling and reconciliation, offering amnesty for full disclosure of involvement in crimes.

Legacy of Apartheid

  • Current Issues:

    • South Africa remains highly unequal; wealth still concentrated among a small number of white families.

    • Millions face ongoing challenges such as poverty and poor education.

The Rwandan Genocide

Overview of the Rwandan Genocide

  • Nature of Genocide: Unlike the Nazi paradigm, the Rwandan genocide occurred in a local and intimate context.

    • Involved hundreds of thousands of perpetrators, with millions of witnesses.

  • Duration: Spanned 100 days, characterized by extreme brutality and widespread torture.

    • Notable Methods: Included live burials, organ removal, and various torture methods suggesting a systematic approach to brutality.

Understanding Genocide

  1. Historical Context:

    • Previous discussions have centered on genocide within the Holocaust and comparative international frameworks.

    • The UN Convention on Genocide passed in 1948 set the foundation for legal actions against genocide but not invoked until the 1990s.

  2. Differences in Genocides:

    • Variations in inter-ethnic violence highlighted; perceptions often diminish the gravity of the events as culturally endemic.

  3. Colonial Impact:

    • Colonial legacies sparked tendencies for genocidal violence, identifying native violence as both a consequence and potential response to colonization.

Brief History of Rwanda

  • Political Structure: Pre-colonization divisions between Hutu, Tutsi, Twa clans; significant kingdoms emerged by the 18th century under Tutsi dominance.

  • Colonial Influence:

    • German and subsequently Belgian colonization reinforced Tutsi supremacy through dividing policies.

    • Identity cards introduced racial classifications, solidifying ethnic divisions and inequalities.

Hutu Revolution and Post-Independence

  • Post-Colonial Shift:

    • Hutu power dynamics shifted dramatically post-independence in 1961, leading to civil unrest.

  • Civil War:

    • Emergence of perpetrator and victim identities; complex interplay of race and power dynamics emerged during the civil war into the 1990s leading to escalation into genocide.

Macro, Meso, Micro-Level Analysis

  • Framework for Understanding:

    • Show the multifaceted nature of genocide analysis across different levels of societal engagement.

International Response

  • Global Indifference: Utilized as a lens to critique responses amidst escalating violence, particularly referencing lessons learned from the Yugoslav Civil Wars.