IB History 12 Apartheid Notes

IB History 12 Paper One: Rights and Protest Movements

• Prescribed Subject: Rights and Protest Movements
• Nature and Characteristics of Discrimination
• Case Study 1: CRM in the United States 1954-1966 (covered in Year One)
• Case Study 2: Apartheid South Africa 1948-1964

South Africa – Background and Context

• Dutch East India Company:
  • Stopover post.
  • Small isolated colony established (circa 1650).
• 19th Century: Age of European Imperialism (Africa)
• Formal acquisition by Britain in 1806.
• Conflict between descendants of Dutch settlers and British colonists through the 19th century.
• The Great Trek:
  • Dutch settlers (Boers/Farmers/Afrikaners) migrate north and east from the cape.
  • Search for farmland and to move away from British control.
  • A desire to preserve cultural and religious identity.
  • Romanticized in Afrikaans history.
  • Involved battles against the powerful Zulu tribe.
  • Myth of the chosen people emerges.
• Two semi-autonomous states established:
  • Orange Free State.
  • The Transvaal.
• Mineral Revolution of the 1860s, 1870s, 1880s:
  • Significant social and economic implications.
  • British colonists become wealthy and prosperous (i.e., Cecil Rhodes).
  • The Boer farmers did not share in this prosperity.
  • Resentment towards the British.
  • Black South Africans:
    • No longer able to sustain their traditional lifestyle.
    • Were left with few options but to work in the British mines.
    • Paid poorly.
    • Dangerous work.
    • Many would migrate to large urban centers.
  • The Mineral Revolution led to greater British interest in the Free States and reignited old wounds and resentments that had caused the Great Trek a generation earlier.
  • The Boers perceived their freedom was threatened.
• The Boer Wars:
  • First Boer War:
    • 1877: Britain attempted to annex the Transvaal.
  • Second Boer War:
    • 1899-1902: Fierce resistance by the Boers to expanded British control.
  • Treaty of Vereeniging:
    • Limited self-government granted to the Boer States.

South Africa: Self-Governing Dominion and the Segregation Era

• 1910 – South Africa becomes a self-governing dominion within the British Empire.
• Racial composition at that time:
  • Black Africans: 70%.
  • White European Descent: 20%.
  • Coloured/Mixed: 10%.
  • Most of the white population was of Dutch descent.
  • The Boers dominated South African politics after 1910.
• The Segregation Era: 1910-1948
  • Both Afrikaners and English speakers agreed on the perception that Black Africans were racially inferior.
  • Laws put in place to impose segregation and reduce the status of Black Africans.
  • Primary role as cheap labor and domestic help:
    • 1911 Native Labour Regulation Act; passbooks introduced.
    • 1913 Native Land Act; restricted African ownership of land to 7% of South Africa.
    • 1923 Natives (Urban Areas) Act; Africans in the cities had to administer to the needs of whites; if employed in mines or industry expected to live in townships.
    • 1924 Industrial Conciliation Act – banned trade unions for Black Africans; employees had no rights.
  • Tensions between Afrikaners and English speakers characteristic of the early years of the dominion.
    • Afrikaners resented British connection; the automatic entry of South Africa into WWI; economic domination of English Speakers.
  • Political Parties and alignment during the inter-war period 1918-1939; many political parties; comprised (almost) exclusively of white men

Political Personalities and WWII

• Important political personalities:
  • Jan Smuts:
    • Leader of the South Africa Party (SAP).
    • Favored link with Britain.
  • JMB Herzog:
    • Leader of the National Party, mainly composed of Afrikaners.
    • Supported independence from Britain.
  • D.F. Malan:
    • Purified National Party.
    • Pro-Nazi during WWII.
    • Anti-Semitic.
    • Fascist leanings.
    • Afrikan identity.
• South Africa entered WWII against Germany in support of Britain; 180,000 men volunteered; many Afrikaners opposed to the support for Britain; actively supported Germany.
• Impact of the War:
  • Laws against Black African labor were relaxed.
  • Led to a new, more moderate racial policy.
  • Would play a role in the 1948 election.
• Post WWII:
  • The Boers become concerned about the break up of the British Empire; concerned about the spread of ideas regarding racial equality that Britain had accepted.
  • Boers – led by the National Party – determined that ideas of racial equality would not take root in South Africa.
• Election of 1948:
  • Won narrowly by the Nationalist Party.
  • Introduced official racial policy of Apartheid “Apartness”.

Apartheid: Development and Discrimination

• Case Study 2 Begins Here: The Development of Apartheid 1948-1964
• Nature and Characteristics of Discrimination
• South Africa: Growth of Black African Resistance (1910-1948)
  • Protest groups opposing segregation and discrimination prior to 1948 had little success.
  • African elite hoped that their loyalty to Britain during WWI would lead to greater political recognition and more rights.
  • 1912 South African Native National Congress (SANNC) formed; became the African National Congress in 1923.
  • The SANNC looked to Britain for support; hopeful the focus on self-determination at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 would also apply to South Africa; it didn’t, the ANC was denied entrance to the conference.
  • ANC leadership, primarily middle-class, produced newspapers and pamphlets but with little effect; most black Africans were illiterate; little direct action.
  • ANC faced a number of challenges that impeded their ability to collect Black African support:
    • Tribal differences and identity.
    • Illiteracy and different languages.
    • Hard to find common ground.
  • ANCYL – African National Congress Youth League – formed in 1943 by Walter Sisulu; radicalization of the movement; greater focus on direct action and Africanism.
• 1948, partly in response to the election of the National Party and its program of apartheid, the ANCYL created the Basic Policy and focused on uniting all Africans to overcome tribal differences

The Election of 1948 and Grand and Petty Apartheid

• The Election of 1948 and its significance (continuity, change, consequence)
  • National Party victory (HNP)
  • Primary issue of the election: Integration or Apartheid also referred to as “Baaskap” (do as I say because I’m the boss)
  • D.F. Malan leader of the National Party becomes Prime Minister
  • Smuts, leader of the United Party, lost his seat; Deputy Minister, Hofmeyr attacked throughout the election as an integrationist
  • Reasons for the National Party victory: poor leadership of Smuts; United Party disorganized; unfair tactics used by the National Party (fear)
• Grand and Petty Apartheid:
  • The National party wanted to entrench “Grand” Apartheid, the overall policy to keep the different races as separated as possible.
  • “Petty” apartheid meant the day-to-day restrictions that kept the races apart; segregation; separate facilities etc.
• The National Party Government 1948-1953
  • D. F. Malan, Prime Minister: “Today South Africa belongs to us once more. South Africa is our own for the first time since union……”
  • The Government’s overarching goals:
    • Impose white supremacy through an all embracing system of Apartheid
    • To end political ties with Britain and form a republic

Development and Implementation of Apartheid

• The Development of Apartheid
  • Department of Native Affairs:
    • Hendrik Verwoerd, became Minister of the department in 1950; dedicated to the system of Apartheid
  • Importance of the Department:
    • Became huge bureaucracy; many South Africans employed by the department
    • Connected to think-tanks that supported racist beliefs (South African Bureau of Racial Affairs; Broerderbund)
      *Implementation of Apartheid
  • Population Registration Act, 1950
    • Categorization of all citizens in South Africa according to their racial characteristics; the different races would be kept strictly separate; inter-racial marriages were broken up and outlawed
  • Group Areas Act, 1950
    • Forced removals – keep poor whites and blacks apart
    • Sophiatown – multi-racial, cosmopolitan community that had increased in population during the interwar period; by the 1950s white suburbs had grown up around it; the government designated it a whites only area and in Feb. 1955 moved in and forcibly removed black and coloured races to separate neighborhoods

Opposition to Apartheid and Government Legislation

• Opposition to the National Party and Government Legislation
  • Government Legislation, the more extreme it became the greater the opposition to it; opposition to apartheid legislation moved from direct action to more militant types of protest
  • Women’s Pass Protest 1956 (Federation of South African Women FSAW); protest against pass law requirements for women; violence and imprisonment resulted in many areas of the country; led to the radicalization of the Black Sash protest group - a group of white women who supported equality for Africans
  • Some white political parties also opposed apartheid: Communist Party; The Progressive Party; The Liberal Party
  • Alexandra Bus Boycott 1957; PUTCO Bus service in Alexandra boycotted by Africans after raising fares; spread to other cities; ultimately forced city councils to subsidize the bus company
  • The Potato Boycott 1957/1959; poor working and living conditions for potato farm workers; African boycott of the purchase of potatoes
  • Shebeens (beer drinking dens) Protests; Cato Manor, Durban; forced removals; police brutality, violence against African protesters; white-only designation
    *Opposition groups, cooperation and mass action; to what extent did different ethnic groups work together to achieve change in South Africa and to challenge government legislation? (often but not always)
  • Durban Riots 1949; conflict between Africans and Indian shopkeepers
  • Non-violent protest; ANC and the SAIC (South African Indian Congress) united forces in 1947 to protest apartheid legislation (May Stayaway; May 1st 1950)
  • Suppression of Communism Act 1950; protesters in South Africa often labeled communists; act could be used to imprison anyone at any time; banning orders forbade people from contacting people in other like-minded organizations
  • Day of Protest June 26 1950; ANC organized; united opposition groups against government heavy handedness
  • M Plan; plan developed by Mandela to enable communication through underground cells of supporters; ANC banned in 1960
  • Growing militancy among protest groups following the introduction of the banning orders
  • ANCYL: leadership role in more direct opposition
  • Defiance Campaign 1952-53; non-violent protest, strikes, mass protests; led by Nelson Mandela; purpose to challenge the government and apartheid; led to many arrests
  • The role of Chief Albert Luthuli, ANC President in the early 1950s – the road to freedom is the cross; believed in non-violent protest
  • Freedom Charter June 1955; People’s Congress; meeting of all opposition groups; charter of universal rights based on what the African people wanted
  • Treason Trial – 156 people who attended the People’s Congress were arrested and charged with high treason; including the entire leadership of the ANC; charged with conspiracy to overthrow the government and replace with a communist regime; 1961 all defendants acquitted
  • ANC splits (PAC – Pan African Congress)
  • Sharpeville Massacre and its significance (March 1960)

Sharpeville Massacre and Government Policies Post-Sharpeville

• Sharpeville Massacre: Tightening the Screws of Apartheid
  • How significant was the Sharpeville Massacre?
  • Role of the PAC and Robert Sobukwe
  • Philosophical differences between The PAC and the ANC
  • Anti-Pass Law Protests
  • March 21 1960 Pass Law Protest in Sharpeville organized by the PAC turns violent
  • Life in Sharpeville: high unemployment, crime; fertile ground for youth radicalization
  • The Massacre: 5,000-20,000 gathered outside police station; tension with police; indecision on the part of the police on how to deal with protesters; 69 shot and killed
  • The Aftermath: mass arrests; banning of the ANC and PAC
  • International response: UN Security Council resolution 134
  • October 1960 Election – 52% victory for the National Party; republic status
  • June 1961 – South Africa withdraws from the British Commonwealth
• Government Policies Post Sharpeville (March 1960)
  • International shock at events in Sharpeville; the massacre revealed apartheid for what it really was – a brutal, repressive, racist governing structure
  • The Wessels Commission - exonerates the police; they were acting in self-defense against a hostile crowd
  • UN Security Council Resolution 134 condemns the apartheid regime in South Africa; blamed the shooting in Sharpeville on the system of apartheid
  • Government policies became even more repressive; Bureau for State Security established; new laws, methods and tactics introduced to keep black South Africans in line
    • The Sabotage Act 1962 – acts of sabotage punishable by death
    • General Laws Amendment Act 1963 – police could arrest people and hold them for 90 days without charge
    • Sobukwe Clause – people could be kept in prison beyond their sentence
    • Torture, spy networks, brutality of the secret services
    • Bantu Laws Amendment Act 1964 – deportation of any black South African from urban areas or white farming area for any reason
  • Creation and Development of Bantustans; Transkei – established as a self-governing state in 1963; condemned by the United Nations; no international recognition
• Bantustan Policy ultimately a failure for the Voerwoerd government; the determination to separate blacks and whites would lead to greater militancy, violent protest and armed struggle on the part of Black South Africans

Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) and the Rivonia Trial

• Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) – Spear of the Nation; established by the ANC as a separate para-military organization; began military campaign against the government in December 1961; bombings in major urban centers, state infrastructure, government buildings; PAC also had a para-military wing Poqo “Pure”
• The Rivonia Trial
  • Mandela arrested in August 1962; charged with incitement to strike, travelling abroad without a passport, sabotage
  • Sentenced to life in prison on Robben Island in 1963