Operant Extinction: Elimination and Generation of Behavior

Introduction to Operant Extinction

  • Operant extinction is defined as the process by which a previously reinforced behavior is no longer followed by the reinforcing consequence, leading to a decrease in the future frequency of that behavior.

  • It is a cornerstone of behavioral psychology, representing the dynamic interplay between reinforcement history and environmental change.

  • This process involves two core effects:

    • Eliminative: The gradual reduction and eventual cessation of the target response.

    • Generative: The temporary increase in behavior (bursts), increased variability, and the emergence of novel or emotional responses.

History and Foundation of Extinction Research

  • B.F. Skinner (1930s-1950s): The discovery of the extinction curve was famously accidental. In 1956, Skinner recounted an instance where a lever-pressing apparatus jammed. Instead of stopping immediately, the rat continued to press the lever at a high rate before the frequency gradually decayed, forming what Skinner called a "pure behavior" curve unaffected by external reinforcement.

  • Sherrington (1906): Early physiological perspectives viewed extinction as a form of "internal inhibition" or the weakening of neural connections related to reflexes.

  • Pavlov (1927): Established "experimental extinction" in respondent conditioning, showing that a conditioned stimulus (CS) loses its ability to elicit a conditioned response (CR) if repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (US).

  • Skinner (1938): Formalized the distinction between respondent extinction (unpairing stimuli) and operant extinction (breaking the response-consequence contingency).

Comprehensive Definitions

1. Procedural Dimensions

  • Positive Reinforcement Extinction: Withholding the stimulus that was previously presented contingent on the behavior (e.g., no longer providing attention for a child's tantrum).

  • Negative Reinforcement Extinction (Escape Extinction): Preventing the individual from escaping an aversive stimulus. The aversive condition remains present regardless of the behavior (e.g., requiring a student to complete a task despite their attempts to disrupt to get out of it).

  • Sensory Extinction: Masking or removing the sensory consequence produced by a behavior (e.g., putting padding on a table to eliminate the sound a child makes by banging their head).

  • Temporal Applications:

    • Acute Extinction: Localized periods of non-reinforcement, often seen in the early intervals of Fixed Interval (FI) schedules.

    • Chronic Extinction: The indefinite discontinuation of reinforcement intended to permanently eliminate a behavior.

2. Functional Dimensions

  • Functionally, extinction is identified by the resulting decrease in the rate of responding.

  • It is important to distinguish extinction from forgetting (which involves the passage of time without the opportunity to respond) and punishment (which involves the delivery of an aversive stimulus or removal of a preferred one, rather than the simple withholding of reinforcement).

The Dynamics of Response Generation

Extinction Bursts and Variability

  • Response Burst: An immediate increase in the frequency, intensity, or duration of the behavior at the onset of extinction. This is often described as "trying harder" before giving up.

  • Increased Topographical Variability: As the standard response fails to produce reinforcement, the organism varies the form (topography) of the behavior.

    • Lieving et al. (2004): Demonstrated that if a specific disruptive behavior is extinguished, other behaviors in the same functional class (which may be more severe) often emerge.

    • This variability is a prerequisite for Shaping, as it provides the raw material (novel responses) for the experimenter to reinforce Successive Approximations.

Emotional and Aggressive Responses

  • Extinction often induces "frustration" or emotional behavior. This can manifest as aggression toward the apparatus, the therapist, or others in the environment.

  • Schedule-Induced Behaviors: Behaviors like polydipsia (excessive drinking) or pacing may increase during extinction phases of other behaviors.

Resistance to Extinction (RTE)

Resistance refers to the degree to which a behavior continues to occur after reinforcement is removed. key factors include:

  1. Schedule of Reinforcement: The Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE) states that behaviors reinforced on an intermittent schedule (e.g., Variable Ratio) are significantly more resistant to extinction than those on a Continuous Reinforcement (CRF) schedule.

  2. Reinforcement Magnitude and Quality: Historically, larger or more preferred reinforcers sometimes create higher resistance, though this relationship is complex and can be influenced by the duration of the reinforcement history.

  3. Motivating Operations (MOs): Higher levels of deprivation relative to the previous reinforcer typically increase resistance.

  4. Previous Extinction History: If a behavior has been extinguished and then reinstated multiple times, it typically extinguishes faster in subsequent cycles.

Contextual and Relapse Phenomena

Extinction does not involve "unlearning" or the deletion of a behavior from an organism's repertoire; rather, it involves the learning of a new "no-reinforcement" contingency.

  • Spontaneous Recovery: The re-emergence of an extinguished behavior after a period of rest, even though no reinforcement has been provided in the interim.

  • Renewal Effect: The recovery of an extinguished behavior when the individual is moved from the extinction environment back to the original reinforcement environment (or a novel one).

  • Resurgence: The reappearance of a previously extinguished behavior (Behavior A) when a more recently reinforced alternative behavior (Behavior B) is placed on extinction.

  • Behavioral Contrast: If reinforcement is withheld in one setting but maintained in another, the rate of behavior may increase in the setting where reinforcement is still available.

Clinical and Practical Applications

  • Functional Assessment: Before implementing extinction, clinicians must identify the specific reinforcer maintaining the behavior to ensure the correct consequence is withheld.

  • Safety Concerns: Because of extinction bursts and induced aggression, extinction is often paired with Differential Reinforcement (DRA, DRO) to teach and reinforce appropriate alternative behaviors, reducing the reliance on the extinction process alone.

Introduction to Operant Extinction

Operant extinction is the process where a previously reinforced behavior no longer results in the reinforcing consequence, causing a decrease in the future frequency of that behavior. As a cornerstone of behavioral psychology, it reflects the dynamic relationship between an organism's reinforcement history and environmental changes. The process typically manifests through two primary effects: eliminative effects, which involve the gradual reduction and eventual cessation of the target response, and generative effects, characterized by temporary behavioral bursts, increased variability, and the emergence of novel or emotional reactions.

History and Foundation of Extinction Research

Scientific inquiry into extinction dates back to the early 20th century, with foundational work by several key figures. B.F. Skinner accidentally discovered the extinction curve between the 1930s and 1950s when a lever-pressing apparatus jammed; he observed that the rat continued to press the lever at a high rate before the frequency gradually decayed, forming what he called a "pure behavior" curve. Prior to this, Sherrington (1906) viewed extinction from a physiological perspective as a form of "internal inhibition" or the weakening of neural connections. Pavlov (1927) also established "experimental extinction" within respondent conditioning, showing that a conditioned stimulus (CS) loses its ability to elicit a conditioned response (CR) if repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (US). Skinner later formalized the distinction in 1938 between respondent extinction (unpairing stimuli) and operant extinction (breaking the response-consequence contingency).

Comprehensive Definitions
1. Procedural Dimensions

From a procedural standpoint, extinction is applied differently depending on the type of reinforcement involved. Positive reinforcement extinction involves withholding the stimulus that was previously presented contingent on the behavior, such as no longer providing attention for a child's tantrum. Negative reinforcement extinction, often called escape extinction, involves preventing an individual from escaping an aversive stimulus; the aversive condition remains present regardless of the behavior. Sensory extinction entails masking or removing the sensory consequence produced by a behavior, such as putting padding on a table to eliminate the sound a child makes by banging their head. These applications can be temporal, with acute extinction occurring during localized periods of non-reinforcement or chronic extinction intended for the indefinite discontinuation and permanent elimination of a behavior.

2. Functional Dimensions

Functionally, extinction is identified by the resulting decrease in the rate of responding. It is crucial to distinguish this process from forgetting, which involves the passage of time without the opportunity to respond, and punishment. Punishment involves the delivery of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a preferred one, whereas extinction is characterized simpler by the withholding of reinforcement that was previously available.

The Dynamics of Response Generation
Extinction Bursts and Variability

The onset of extinction often triggers an immediate increase in the frequency, intensity, or duration of the behavior, known as a response burst. As the standard response fails to produce reinforcement, the organism demonstrates increased topographical variability by changing the form of the behavior. Lieving et al. (2004) demonstrated that if a specific disruptive behavior is extinguished, other behaviors in the same functional class often emerge. This variability is a prerequisite for shaping, as it provides the raw material for the experimenter to reinforce successive approximations of a new target behavior.

Emotional and Aggressive Responses

Extinction frequently induces emotional behavior, often described as "frustration." This can manifest as aggression toward the apparatus, the therapist, or others in the environment. Additionally, schedule-induced behaviors, such as polydipsia (excessive drinking) or pacing, may increase during the extinction phases of other target behaviors.

Resistance to Extinction (RTE)

Resistance refers to the degree to which a behavior continues to occur after reinforcement is removed. A primary factor is the schedule of reinforcement; the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE) states that behaviors reinforced on an intermittent schedule, such as a Variable Ratio, are significantly more resistant to extinction than those on a Continuous Reinforcement (CRF) schedule. Reinforcement magnitude and quality also play a role, as larger or more preferred reinforcers sometimes create higher resistance depending on the history of reinforcement. Furthermore, Motivating Operations (MOs) influence resistance, as higher levels of deprivation relative to the previous reinforcer typically increase persistence. Finally, a previous extinction history can lead to faster extinction in subsequent cycles if a behavior has been extinguished and reinstated multiple times.

Contextual and Relapse Phenomena

Extinction does not involve "unlearning" or the deletion of a behavior from an organism's repertoire; instead, it involves learning a new "no-reinforcement" contingency. This leads to several relapse phenomena, such as spontaneous recovery, where an extinguished behavior re-emerges after a period of rest without any new reinforcement. The renewal effect occurs when a behavior recovers after moving from the extinction environment back to the original reinforcement environment. Resurgence refers to the reappearance of a previously extinguished behavior when a more recently reinforced alternative is placed on extinction. Lastly, behavioral contrast may occur if reinforcement is withheld in one setting but maintained in another, causes the rate of behavior to increase in the setting where reinforcement is still available.

Clinical and Practical Applications

Effective clinical application of extinction requires a functional assessment to identify the specific reinforcer maintaining the behavior. Because of the risks associated with extinction bursts and induced aggression, extinction is rarely used as a standalone intervention. It is typically paired with Differential Reinforcement strategies, such as DRA (Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior) or DRO (Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior), to teach and reinforce appropriate alternative behaviors while reducing reliance on the extinction process alone.