Superpower Relations, 1943-72: Comprehensive Study Guide

Origins of the Cold War and Ideological Rivalry

• The Second World War saw the formation of the 'Grand Alliance' starting in $1941$, composed of the Soviet Union, the USA, and Britain, to defeat Nazi Germany and Japan.

• Co-operation lasted until the defeat of Germany in May $1945$ and Japan in September $1945$. Despite this, tensions grew as it became clear Hitler would be defeated.

• The 'Cold War' was not a direct military conflict but a war of words, involving propaganda, spying, the threat of war, military alliances, and the development of massive nuclear arsenals. Superpowers used these tools to force their views on each other.

• Foundational distrust originated in $1917$ following the Russian Revolution, when the Bolshevik (communist) government overthrew the tsar and exited the First World War. Western nations (Britain, France, the USA) sent forces to support Bolshevik opponents in the civil war, leading the Soviet Union to believe the West wanted their government destroyed.

• Pre-war tensions were further exacerbated by the $1938$ agreement by Britain, France, and Italy to allow Hitler to take parts of Czechoslovakia without consulting Stalin. Stalin viewed this as the West's indifference to Soviet security.

• In August $1949$, the Nazi-Soviet Pact saw Hitler and Stalin agree to split Poland. Britain and France felt betrayed by the Soviet Union, but the alliance was forced when Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in June $1941$.

• The three leaders, known as the 'Big Three', were:     * Franklin D. Roosevelt (USA): Believed in democracy but compromised to seek Soviet support against Japan. He believed the Soviet Union should be treated as a superpower and partner in peace.     * Winston Churchill (Britain): Deeply suspicious of Stalin and aimed to stop Soviet expansion. He held traditional values and believed in the British Empire.     * Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union): Strengthened one-party rule and cut individual rights. He aimed to keep Germany weak and established a 'buffer zone' of pro-Soviet countries to protect the USSR from Western attack.

Ideological Differences: Capitalism vs. Communism

• Capitalism (USA and Britain):     * Politics: Free elections with a choice of parties to vote for.     * Economy: Private ownership and competition between businesses.     * Social Structure: Hierarchy based on wealth, education, achievements, or background.     * Rights: Individual freedoms are valued but limited by majority opinion.

• Communism (Soviet Union):     * Politics: Single-party rule.     * Economy: All property and businesses owned by the state to ensure fair shares for all (based on Karl Marx).     * Social Structure: Aim for a classless, equal society.     * Rights: Rights of all workers are considered more important than individual rights.

The Wartime Conferences: Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam

• Tehran Conference (November $1943$):     * Attended by Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin.     * Agreements: Britain and the USA to launch a 'second front' in Western Europe to relieve pressure on the Eastern Front. Stalin to join the war against Japan once Germany was defeated.     * Post-war planning: Germany to remain weak; Poland to gain land from Germany but lose land to the USSR.     * Tensions: Churchill wanted the second front in the Balkans, but Roosevelt sided with Stalin. This indicated the emergence of the 'Big Two' (USA and USSR) as the dominant powers.

• Yalta Conference (February $1945$):     * Attended by Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin as the war neared its end.     * Agreements: Germany to be split into four zones (US, British, French, Soviet); Germany to pay $\text{20 billion}$ in reparations ($50\%$ to the USSR); Nazi Party to be banned; UN to be formed ($25$ April $1945$).     * Stalin agreed that future governments in Eastern Europe would be decided in free elections.     * Conflict over Poland: Stalin wanted a pro-communist government, while Britain supported the non-communist 'London Poles'.

• Potsdam Conference (July-August $1945$):     * New leaders: Harry S. Truman (replaces Roosevelt) and Clement Attlee (replaces Churchill midpoint).     * Changes: Germany had surrendered; atomic bomb successfully tested by the USA; UN created by the Treaty of San Francisco (June $1945$).     * Truman's approach: 'Get Tough' with Stalin; used the atomic bomb as leverage. He suspected Stalin of using liberated countries for 'army of occupation' roles.     * Agreements: Germany and Berlin divided into four zones; each zone to take reparations internally; USSR allowed a quarter of industrial equipment from other zones since it controlled the poorest area.     * Disagreements: Truman objected to Soviet control over liberated nations and the border arrangements for Poland.

The Impact of the Atomic Bomb

• The USA dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima ($6$ August $1945$) and Nagasaki ($9$ August $1945$), killing over $120,000$ civilians.

• Truman grew more confident in negotiations, while Britain, France, and Western Europe felt more secure under American protection.

• Stalin, feeling threatened, accelerated his own nuclear program (Operation Borodino) and became more determined to maintain a buffer zone. The first Soviet atomic test occurred on $29$ August $1949$.

• By $1964$, Britain, France, and China also possessed atomic bombs. This created a nuclear 'arms race' characterized by 'brinkmanship' and the 'nuclear deterrent'—the fear that use of such weapons would lead to total destruction.

Soviet Expansion and the Satellite States

• Stalin created satellite states—independent nations under Soviet political, economic, and military control—to serve as a buffer zone.

• Poland: Red Army allowed the $1944$ Warsaw Uprising to be crushed by Nazis before invading and installing a pro-communist government. Non-communists were imprisoned after rigged elections in $1947$.

• Czechoslovakia: The only democracy pre-war. Communists overthrew President Eduard Benes in February $1948$; Klement Gottwald established a communist regime.

• Hungary: Elections in $1945$ saw some communists, but by $1947$, voters were threatened, and by $1949$, it was a one-party state.

• Bulgaria, Romania, and East Germany: 'Free' elections were used to intimidate voters into choosing Communist Party candidates.

• The Telegrams (1946):     * Long Telegram (Kennan): Reported that Stalin wanted to destroy capitalism but would soften his stance if met with strong resistance. Led to the policy of 'containment'.     * Novikov Telegram: Reported that the USA wanted world domination and was preparing for war. Encouraged Stalin to tighten control over Eastern Europe.

• Iron Curtain Speech: Churchill stated on $5$ March $1946$ that an 'iron curtain' had descended across Europe, separating East from West.

The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan

• Truman Doctrine ($12$ March $1947$): Announced a package of $400$ million dollars in economic aid to Greece and Turkey to resist communist guerrillas. It marked the end of US isolationism and the start of containment.

• Marshall Plan: George Marshall proposed economic aid to rebuild Europe and make communism less attractive. Between $1948$ and $1952$, the USA gave $13.7$ billion dollars to nations including Britain, France, Italy, and West Germany. Britain received over $25\%$ of the aid.

• Soviet Response: Stalin called Marshall Aid 'dollar imperialism'—using money to build an American empire.     * Cominform ($1947$): Coordinated Communist Parties to ensure loyalty to Moscow and rejected Marshall Aid.     * Comecon ($1949$): A communist alternative to the Marshall Plan for economic aid and trade within the Eastern Bloc.

The Berlin Crisis ($1948-1949$)

• Uniting the West: Britain and the USA merged zones into 'Bizonia' ($1947$), then added France to create 'Trizonia' ($1948$). Introduced the 'Deutschmark' to provide economic unity.

• The Blockade: Stalin shut land routes into Berlin in June $1948$ to force the West out. He hoped to gain a propaganda victory and total control of the capital.

• Berlin Airlift (Operation Vittles): The West flew supplies into Berlin for nearly a year. At its peak (January $1949$), they delivered $170,000$ tonnes of food and coal in one month. Stalin lifted the blockade on $9$ May $1949$.

• Consequences:     * Permanent division: Federal Republic of Germany (FRG/West Germany) formed in May $1945$; Konrad Adenauer elected chancellor. German Democratic Republic (GDR/East Germany) formed in October $1949$.     * NATO ($1949$): Formal military alliance where an attack on one member was an attack on all. Resulted in permanent US bases in Europe.

The Cold War in the $1950$s

• Korean War ($1950-1953$): North Korea (supported by USSR) invaded South Korea (supported by USA/UN). General Douglas MacArthur commanded UN forces. Ends in stalemate at the $38\text{th}$ parallel. US tripled its defense budget and formed SEATO ($1954$) to stop communism in Asia.

• Arms Race Acceleration: USA tested hydrogen bomb in $1952$ ($1,000$ times more powerful than A-bomb). USSR tested hydrogen bomb in $1953$. In $1957$, both developed ICBMs capable of hitting targets $5,000\text{ km}$ away.

• New Leadership (1953): Dwight Eisenhower (anti-communist but aware of nuclear danger) and Nikita Khrushchev (critically evaluated Stalin and proposed 'peaceful co-existence').

• Warsaw Pact ($1955$): Created after West Germany joined NATO. Included USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, and GDR. Formed a unified 'Eastern Bloc' military command.

• Hungarian Uprising ($1956$): Matyas Rakosi's harsh rule led to protests. Imre Nagy proposed reforms: leaving the Warsaw Pact, power sharing, and neutral status. Khrushchev invaded with tanks on $4$ November $1956$, killing $20,000$ Hungarians. Janos Kadar installed; Nagy executed in $1958$. The West did not intervene due to the policy of containment and the Suez Crisis.

The Berlin Wall and Refugee Crisis ($1958-1963$)

• Refugee Problem: By $1958$, $3$ million East Germans (a sixth of the population) had fled to West Germany via Berlin. Many were skilled professionals (the 'brain drain').

• Khrushchev's Ultimatum ($1958$): Demanded Webstern troops leave Berlin and make it a 'free city' within $6$ months.

• Summits:     * Geneva/Camp David ($1959$): Improved relations; Ultimatum withdrawn.     * Paris ($1960$): Failed after a US U-2 spy plane (pilot Gary Powers) was shot down over the USSR.     * Vienna ($1961$): Kennedy (elected $1961$) refused concessions; Khrushchev renewed the ultimatum.

• The Wall: Construction began $13$ August $1961$. A concrete wall eventually stretched $165\text{ km}$.     * Impact: Separated families; over $130$ people killed attempting to cross (e.g., Peter Fechter in $1962$).     * Kennedy's 'Ich bin ein Berliner' speech ($1963$) reinforced West Berlin as a symbol of freedom.

The Cuban Missile Crisis ($1962$)

• The Revolution: Fidel Castro overthrew Batista ($1959$), nationalized American land, and signed a sugar deal with the USSR ($1960$).

• Bay of Pigs ($1961$): Failed CIA-backed invasion by $1,400$ Cuban exiles. Humiliated Kennedy and pushed Castro to declare himself communist.

• The Crisis: In October $1962$, U-2 planes photographed Soviet missile sites in Cuba. This challenged the US mainland.     * Thirteen Days (Oct 16-28): Kennedy formed ExComm and opted for a naval 'quarantine' (blockade).     * Agreement: Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles from Cuba; Kennedy secretly agreed to remove US missiles from Turkey and publicly promised not to invade Cuba.

• Consequences: A 'hotline' telephone link was set up between Moscow and Washington ($1963$). The Limited Test Ban Treaty ($1963$) and Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ($1968$) followed.

Czechoslovakia and the Brezhnev Doctrine ($1968-1969$)

• Prague Spring: Alexander Dubcek introduced 'socialism with a human face'. Reforms included: ending censorship, increasing trade with the West, and freedom to travel.

• Invasion: Brezhnev (replaced Khrushchev) feared these freedoms would spread. $500,000$ Warsaw Pact troops invaded on $20$ August $1968$. Dubcek replaced by Gustav Husak.

• Brezhnev Doctrine: Stated that the actions of any communist party affected all others, justifying intervention if a country turned toward capitalism/reforms.

The Path to Détente ($1963-1972$)

• Détente: A period of easing tensions and co-operation.

• Reasons for the USA: Cost of the Vietnam War ($170$ billion dollars); domestic social unrest following Martin Luther King's assassination ($1968$); Nixon's personal ambition.

• Reasons for the USSR: Economic stagnantion; spending $30\%$ of GDP on defense; need for Western technology (computers/microchips).

• The China Factor: Sino-Soviet relations worsened, leading to border clashes in $1969$. 'Ping-Pong Diplomacy' opened relations between the USA and China. Nixon visited Beijing in February $1972$.

• SALT 1 (May $1972$):     * ABM Treaty: Limited both sides to $2$ missile defense sites.     * Interim Treaty: Limited ICBMs and SLBMs. USSR allowed more ICBMs ($1,618$ vs $1,054$) but USA had superior MIRV technology.     * Basic Principles Agreement: Guidelines to avoid nuclear war.

• Ostpolitik: Willy Brandt (West German Chancellor) sought to bridge the gap between East and West Europe.

Origins of the Cold War and Ideological Rivalry

• What it is: The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union and the USA, marked by ideological rivalry and lack of direct military conflict.

• Why it happened: Origins lie in distrust after the Russian Revolution of 1917, with Western nations opposing communism. The aftermath of World War II created a power struggle, exacerbated by events like the Nazi-Soviet Pact and disagreements over post-war Europe.

• What happened after: Tensions escalated into a prolonged rivalry characterized by espionage, propaganda, and military buildup

• 3 effects: 1. Formation of military alliances (NATO and the Warsaw Pact) 2. Nuclear arms race; 3. Division of Europe into East (communist) and West (capitalist).

Ideological Differences: Capitalism vs. Communism

• What it is: The main ideological conflict during the Cold War where capitalism (USA & Britain) focused on free elections and private ownership, while communism (Soviet Union) aimed for single-party rule and state ownership.

• Why it happened: Ideological principles of each system directly opposed one another, leading to distrust and competition.

• What happened after: Each side sought to spread its ideology globally, impacting various regions around the world.

• 3 effects: 1. Proxy wars in regions like Korea and Vietnam; 2. Economic aid programs (Marshall Plan vs. Comecon); 3. Perpetuation of global conflicts associated with ideological allegiances.

The Wartime Conferences: Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam

• What it is: A series of meetings among the leaders of the Allied powers to discuss the post-war order.

• Why it happened: To coordinate military strategies against the Axis powers and plan post-war recovery and governance.

• What happened after: Disputes over the agreements laid the groundwork for future tensions, with different interpretations of agreements.

• 3 effects: 1. Division of Germany; 2. Sowing discord over Poland and Eastern Europe; 3. Emergence of the USA and USSR as dominant global powers.

The Impact of the Atomic Bomb

• What it is: The use of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki marked the first deployment in warfare.

• Why it happened: To quickly end the war in the Pacific and establish US dominance in post-war negotiations.

• What happened after: Heightened tensions and fear regarding nuclear capabilities between the superpowers.

• 3 effects: 1. Initiation of the nuclear arms race; 2. Shift in power dynamics, with the USA viewed as a dominant force; 3. Establishment of nuclear deterrent strategies.

Soviet Expansion and the Satellite States

• What it is: The establishment of regime-controlled nations in Eastern Europe that aligned with Soviet policies.

• Why it happened: To create a buffer against potential Western aggression in the wake of WWII.

• What happened after: These states became sites of significant conflict and resistance against Soviet control.

• 3 effects: 1. Widespread uprisings (e.g., Hungary, Czechoslovakia); 2. Deepening of the iron curtain; 3. Solidification of the divide between East and West.

The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan

• What it is: A US strategy to provide support to countries resisting communism and rebuild European economies post-WWII.

• Why it happened: To counter perceived Soviet expansionism and prevent the spread of communism.

• What happened after: Countries in Western Europe received significant aid, which bolstered their economies and political systems.

• 3 effects: 1. Strengthened US-Western European relations; 2. Increased tension with the Eastern Bloc; 3. Foundation for future US foreign policy focused on containment.

The Berlin Crisis (1948-1949)

• What it is: A political standoff between the USA and the USSR over access to Berlin.

• Why it happened: Stalin's attempt to gain control over entire Berlin by blockading western access, aiming to pressure allies out.

• What happened after: Western powers initiated the Berlin Airlift to supply West Berlin, assertively countering Soviet pressures.

• 3 effects: 1. Division of Germany into East and West; 2. Formation of NATO; 3. Increased Cold War tensions and ideological splits.

The Cold War in the 1950s

• What it is: A period characterized by military conflicts, ideological struggle, and heightened tensions between superpowers.

• Why it happened: Escalating global influence and competition over ideology, highlighted by events like the Korean War.

• What happened after: Consolidation of military alliances and intensified arms race.

• 3 effects: 1. US increased defense spending; 2. Revolution in military strategies (e.g., NSC-68); 3. Broadened global alignments along ideological lines.

Origins of the Cold War and Ideological Rivalry

• 3 effects:

  1. Formation of military alliances (NATO and the Warsaw Pact):

  • NATO was established in 1949 as a collective defense alliance of Western powers, solidifying military commitments and strategies for countering Soviet expansion.

  • The Warsaw Pact, formed in 1955, bound the Soviet Union and its Eastern European allies into a military alliance as a counterbalance to NATO, formalizing the division of Europe.

  1. Nuclear arms race:

  • The competition for nuclear superiority led to exponential increases in nuclear arsenals on both sides, generating vast stockpiles of weapons and driving technological advancements in military capabilities.

  • This race created a pervasive climate of fear, leading to doctrine strategies such as Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) where both sides possessed the capacity to retaliate with total devastation.

  1. Division of Europe into East (communist) and West (capitalist):

  • Europe was split physically and ideologically, represented by the Iron Curtain, which symbolized the stark contrast in governance and societal structures.

  • This division prompted numerous proxy conflicts and tensions that would influence global politics for decades, limiting cooperation and fostering rivalries.

Ideological Differences: Capitalism vs. Communism

• 3 effects:

  1. Proxy wars in regions like Korea and Vietnam:

  • The ideological battle manifested in direct military engagements where the USA and USSR supported opposing sides, resulting in vast human and material costs and lingering regional instability.

  • These conflicts often included foreign interventions that solidified allegiances and enmities, exacerbating global tensions.

  1. Economic aid programs (Marshall Plan vs. Comecon):

  • The Marshall Plan (1948-1952) successfully revitalized Western European economies, curtailing the spread of communism by creating economic stability and integration, promoting democratic governance.

  • Comecon, the Soviet alternative, aimed to strengthen communist economies but ultimately fell short, often reminding Eastern European nations of their reliance on the Soviet model, leading to economic stagnation.

  1. Perpetuation of global conflicts associated with ideological allegiances:

  • Ideological commitments led nations to intervene in conflicts worldwide, often prioritizing loyalty over stability, perpetuating cycles of unrest across continents such as Latin America, Africa, and Asia.

The Wartime Conferences: Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam

• 3 effects:

  1. Division of Germany:

  • After WWII, Germany was partitioned into four zones of occupation, sowing the seeds for future conflict as the ideological divide hardened into the Cold War, culminating in the eventual formation of East and West Germany.

  1. Sowing discord over Poland and Eastern Europe:

  • Conflicting views on governance and sovereignty led to escalating tensions as Stalin pushed for pro-communist regimes, infuriating the West and establishing a pattern for Eastern European dominance that would last decades.

  1. Emergence of the USA and USSR as dominant global powers:

  • The clear political and military presence of both nations on the world stage realigned international relations, setting the groundwork for influence and interventions beyond Europe in future global politics.

The Impact of the Atomic Bomb

• 3 effects:

  1. Initiation of the nuclear arms race:

  • The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki marked not only the end of WWII but also opened a new era of military strategy focusing on nuclear deterrence, compelling nations to develop and stockpile nuclear capabilities.

  1. Shift in power dynamics:

  • The USA was solidified as a global superpower, radically altering the geopolitical landscape and perceptions of power within the context of the Cold War, challenging international relations and policies of non-alignment.

  1. Establishment of nuclear deterrent strategies:

  • The fear induced by nuclear capabilities resulted in the adoption of complex strategies focused on deterrence, reshaping military doctrines and foreign policies that emphasized restraint to avoid escalation of conflict potentially leading to mutual destruction.

Soviet Expansion and the Satellite States

• 3 effects:

  1. Widespread uprisings (e.g., Hungary, Czechoslovakia):

  • The suppression of these uprisings exemplified the lengths to which the USSR would go to maintain control, showcasing the fragility of Soviet dominion and prompting a cycle of resistance and repression that defined Eastern Europe.

  1. Deepening of the iron curtain:

  • The symbolic and physical barrier represented the ideological chasm and fostered a climate of mistrust and division that persisted throughout the Cold War era, severely affecting diplomatic relations.

  1. Solidification of the divide between East and West:

  • The creation of satellite states reinforced the bipolar world order, entrenching national identities within the East and West, leading to a lack of significant diplomacy or negotiation, and entrenching hostilities.

The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan

• 3 effects:

  1. Strengthened US-Western European relations:

  • The humanitarian aid depicted the USA as a benevolent superpower, fostering economic recovery and reinforcing alliances that would solidify during the Cold War and beyond, leading to a cooperative framework for Western European governance.

  1. Increased tension with the Eastern Bloc:

  • The Marshall Plan’s rejection by Eastern European countries illustrated the polarizing nature of US foreign policy, leading to an entrenchment of the ideological divide and a counter-response from the Soviet Union, further exacerbating hostilities.

  1. Foundation for future US foreign policy focused on containment:

  • The strategies established during this period configured how the US engaged with global conflicts, prioritizing anti-communist agendas that led to policy frameworks ensuring involvement in proxy conflicts globally.

The Berlin Crisis (1948-1949)

• 3 effects:

  1. Division of Germany into East and West:

  • The formal separation established two distinct governments that embodied opposing ideologies, materially affecting residents and creating stark socio-economic contrasts that would continue until reunification.

  1. Formation of NATO:

  • NATO emerged as a military countermeasure to perceived Soviet threats, representing a significant geopolitical realignment and promoting collective security among Western nations, alongside a reinforcing military commitment.

  1. Increased Cold War tensions and ideological splits:

  • The confrontation surrounding Berlin epitomized escalating tensions that characterized the Cold War, serving as a focal point for military strategy and propaganda that would influence global relations for years to come.

The Cold War in the 1950s

• 3 effects:

  1. US increased defense spending:

  • The arms race necessitated a reevaluation of national budgets, leading to sustained military expenditures that characterized US foreign policy, influencing domestic policies and economic stability.

  1. Revolution in military strategies (e.g., NSC-68):

  • Strategic policies like NSC-68 redefined military engagement and diplomatic outcomes, structuring the framework for global commitments to containment and influencing actions in conflicts around the world.

  1. Broadened global alignments along ideological lines:

  • The Cold War solidified allegiances based on ideological principles, strengthening relationships within military alliances and leading to new conflicts uniquely shaped by these global realignments.