Study Notes on The Ancient Central Andes by Jeffrey Quilter

SPACE, TIME, AND FORM IN THE CENTRAL ANDES

INTRODUCTION

  • The names such as Chavin, Moche, Nasca, and Wari are modern classifications assigned to archaeological cultures. The ancient peoples referred to themselves by names unknown to modern archaeology.

  • All relevant cultures except those from the sixteenth century are identified by archaeological terms rather than self-designations.

  • Archaeological Culture: Defined by Vere Gordon Childe as a suite of tools and artifacts that show a distinct style within a geographical region over time.

    • Traditional Categories: "Traditions" for enduring traits, and "Culture Area" for broad cultural regions encompassing nested archaeological cultures, such as the Central Andes.

    • The Moche: Referenced as a distinct archaeological culture (1st-9th centuries AD) recognized for its unique artifacts found primarily on the North Coast of Peru. Its existence as a cohesive culture is a modern construct.

GEOGRAPHY

  • Central Andean Region: Defined by its geographical extent aligned with that of the former Inca Empire, stretching from southern Colombia through various modern countries (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile).

  • Dimensions: The region runs approximately 4000 km (2500 miles) from north to south and encompasses about 1,631,000 square km (630,000 square miles).

  • Environmental Diversity: The geography consists of three parallel zones:

    • Coastal Plain: Desert climate affecting ecosystems.

    • The Andes Mountains: Altitude and geographical features produce varied moisture and climates, blocking moisture-laden Atlantic winds.

    • Tropical Forest: Located on the eastern slopes of the Andes, hosting wet tropical ecosystems.

ANDES MOUNTAINS

  • Geographic Influence: The Andes serve as a continental divide, impacting climate across South America.

  • Amazon River: One of the longest rivers, its headwaters originate from the eastern slopes of the Andes.

  • Hydrology:

    • East of the divide, rivers flow into the Amazon.

    • Westward flow towards the Pacific from numerous valleys; Peru has between 30-40 such coastal valleys.

  • Altitude Variations: Different ecosystems exist at varied elevations influencing agriculture and settlement patterns.

    • Southern Peru: The Andes are particularly high here.

    • Ecuador: Lower mountains with ample habitation space, e.g., Quito.

    • Mountain Ranges:

    • Cordillera Blanca: Host to the highest point, Huascaran (6,768 m, 22,205 ft).

    • Altiplano Plateau: High, dry desert influencing ancient societies.

GEOGRAPHICAL REGIMES

  • Climatological Zones: Diverse climates from coastal deserts, moist mountain ranges, to tropical environments dictate lifestyles and sustenance methods of ancient peoples.

  • Humboldt Current: A cold ocean current that influences coastal climate and ecosystems; affects local agriculture and fishing.

  • Seasonal Weather Patterns: Variations in rainfall; summer contributes to crops but winter brings fog (garua) impacting visibility and growth.

EL NINO SOUTHERN OSCILLATION EVENTS

  • Ocean Temperature Influence: Changes in ocean temperatures disrupt local weather, impacting agriculture and societies.

  • Human Response: Local adaptations to sudden climatic changes pose both challenges (drought and floods) and opportunities (blooming flora in desolate areas).

  • Cultural Stability: Requires social adjustments based on weather reliability or unpredictability.

VERTICAL ZONES

  • Andean Environmental Classification: Ecological zones defined by altitude impacting agricultural potential and community development. Categories include:

    • Chala (0-1,000 m): Coastal desert region.

    • Yunga (1,000-3,000 m): Production zone for tropical crops.

    • Quechua (2,500-3,500 m): Prime agricultural area for frost-free crops like maize.

    • Suni (3,000-4,000 m): Cold, moist conditions favoring certain crops.

    • Puna (3,500-4,800 m): Grassland, home to pastoral activities.

    • Janca (Above 4,800 m): Rarely inhabited.

    • Tropical Forest Zones: Rich habitats supporting varied resources, potential areas for cultivation.

TIME

  • Chronological Systems: Different countries within the Andes operate on various chronological systems reflecting national archaeological trends.

  • Key Chronologies:

    • Rowe-Menzel System: Established chronology using relative dating and cultural influences.

    • Preceramic Period: No pottery; Initial Period linked to the first ceramics introduced around 1700 BC.

    • Lumbreras' System: Sequences based more on cultural evolution theory consisting of distinct periods (Lithic, Archaic, Formative).

  • Disjunction in Chronology and Culture: The integration of changes in cultural practices with fixed chronological markers.

FORM

  • Distinct Andean Features: A blend of social organization, agricultural practices, and religious beliefs define the Andean identity and differ from other cultures.

  • Agricultural Practices: Relied on both lowland and highland crops adapted to intricate environmental conditions.

    • Crop Diversity: Include maize, quinoa, potatoes, and others which vary according to altitude and climate.

    • Animal Husbandry: Indigenous animals such as llamas and alpacas used for transport and wool.

  • Food Preservation Techniques: Innovations such as freeze-drying (chuño) contribute to long-term food storage, crucial for agricultural societies.

  • Cultural Rituals and Artisanship: Facets of Andean religion linked to sustenance reflect on social practices carried through centuries in ceramics, textiles, carvings, etc.

  • Social and Religious Systems: Interconnected with subsistence roles; incorporates complex political organization with community structures often termed "ayllu."

  • Weltanschauung: Andean worldview emphasizing relationships, dualism, and balance across various existences, influencing both social structure and religious beliefs.