Chapter 2

Importance of Research

  • Research is vital for understanding various aspects of psychology and other fields.

Approaches of Research

  • Includes various methodologies to study phenomena, assess theories, and validate findings.

Analysis of Research

  • Involves systematic examination and evaluation of research methods and outcomes.

Research Ethics

  • Encompasses guidelines and standards that govern the conduct of research to protect subjects and ensure integrity.

Overview of Key Terms from Previous Session

  • Independent Variable:

    • Definition: The variable that is manipulated or controlled in an experiment.

  • Dependent Variable:

    • Definition: The variable that is measured to observe the effect of the independent variable.

  • Confounding Variable:

    • Definition: An outside factor that can affect the dependent variable and may lead to erroneous conclusions.

  • Population:

    • Definition: The overall group of individuals from which a sample is drawn.

  • Sample:

    • Definition: A subset of individuals selected from the population for study.

  • Correlation:

    • Definition: A measure of the relationship between two or more variables.

  • Causation:

    • Definition: A relationship where one variable directly affects another.

Practice Examples: Identifying Independent and Dependent Variables

  • Example 1: A pharmacologist testing a new anti-anxiety medication, Anxi-Be-Gone, to see if it reduces anxiety levels.

  • Example 2: A developmental psychologist investigating whether children who successfully lie to friends will be prone to lying to parents.

  • Example 3: A personality psychologist exploring the correlation between aggression and the likelihood of purchasing sports cars.

Additional Practice with Hypotheses

  • Hypothesis 1: Blondes (as an independent variable) are hypothesized to have more fun (dependent variable).

  • Hypothesis 2: First graders know more words than kindergarteners.

  • Hypothesis 3: Individuals diagnosed with major depression are likely to also have an anxiety disorder compared to non-diagnosed individuals.

Validity in Research

  • Validity:

    • Definition: The extent to which a test measures what it purports to measure.

  • Face Validity:

    • Explanation: The degree to which a variable appears to measure what it is intended to (e.g., a scale measuring height).

  • Construct Validity:

    • Explanation: The extent to which a test measures the construct it is intended to measure (e.g., a scale measuring weight).

Reliability in Research

  • Reliability:

    • Definition: The degree to which a measure is consistent and replicable.

  • Inter-rater Reliability:

    • Explanation: The extent to which two or more observers agree on what has been observed.

  • Internal Consistency:

    • Explanation: How well different items on a survey that measure the same thing correlate with each other.

  • Test-retest Reliability:

    • Explanation: The consistency of a particular measure over different instances.

Relationship between Reliability and Validity

  • Diagram illustrates the relationship:

    • Reliable but not valid

    • Valid and reliable

    • Neither reliable nor valid

    • Not reliable and not valid.

Correlational Research

  • Focuses on discovering the nature of relationships between two variables.

  • Measured through a correlation coefficient that ranges from -1 to 1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship.

Illusory Correlations

  • Definition: Occurs when individuals perceive a relationship between two variables that does not exist.

  • Example: Associating odd behavior with lunar phases.

  • Confirmation Bias:

    • Definition: The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs.

    • Example: Believing a dog always barks at delivery personnel due to a selective recall of instances.

Experiments and Participant Selection

  • Operational Definition: A precise description of the variables under study.

  • Participants: Individuals chosen to partake in the study.

  • Random Sample: A selection method where every member of the population has an equal chance to be selected.

    • Importance: If large enough, this sample can be deemed representative of the population.

  • Random Assignment: Participants have equal chances of being placed into experimental or control groups, reducing systematic differences.

Notecard Activity Instructions

  1. Write down:

    • Your name

    • Definition and example of validity.

    • Definition and example of reliability.

  2. Discuss with a neighbor:

    • What definitions did you write?

    • Criteria for something to be considered valid.

    • Criteria for something to be considered reliable.

Blinding in Research

  • Single-Blind Study:

    • Definition: Only participants are unaware of which group they are in, while researchers know.

    • Purpose: Controls for participant expectations regarding the outcome.

  • Double-Blind Study:

    • Definition: Both participants and researchers are unaware of group assignments.

    • Purpose: Controls for both participant and researcher expectations; combats placebo effects arising from expectations.

Interpreting and Reporting Research Findings

  • Emphasizes the need for statistical analysis to determine if there are significant differences between groups.

  • Statistical Significance:

    • Defined as having less than a 5% probability of a type I error or "false positive" where groups appear to differ when they do not.

  • Importance of publishing peer-reviewed journal articles, which undergo scrutiny by experts for quality control in research.

Aspects of Peer-Reviewed Articles

  • Must include:

    • Rationale for research

    • Clear procedure description

    • Evidence of ethical considerations

    • Comprehensive design and method descriptions

    • Statistical analyses that allow for replication of studies.

  • Addresses the replication crisis within scientific research where notable studies fail to be reproduced, advocating for collaborative and transparent work.

Ethical Standards in Research

  • Definition: Set of guidelines defining right and wrong in research practices.

  • Governed by the American Psychological Association (APA) emphasizing lawful conduct and respect for human and animal subjects.

  • The risk involved in studies must balance potential benefits.

  • Certain practices deemed unethical and prohibited by Institutional Review Boards (IRB).

Case Study: Milgram Experiment

  • Conducted to understand the level of obedience to authority figures post-WW2.

  • Key Finding: Approximately two-thirds of participants were willing to inflict lethal shocks upon others if instructed by an authority figure.

  • Ethical concerns raised included deception and emotional trauma, propelling the establishment of ethical guidelines that discourage harmful deception and require informed consent.

Case Study: Tuskegee Syphilis Study

  • Description: Research began in 1932 targeting Black men in Tuskegee, Alabama, who were promised free medical care and benefits in exchange for their participation.

  • Outcome: Approximately half were positive for syphilis but were never informed or treated, leading to extended transmission to partners and avoidable deaths.

Role of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

  • Function: Committees of individuals comprising administrators, scientists, and community members reviewing research proposals.

  • Approval Requirement: Essential for an experiment to commence.

  • Informed Consent: Participants must receive a clear written account of the study.

  • Confidentiality: Protection of participant data is paramount.

  • Deception: Intentional misleading must be ethically justified.

  • Debriefing: Participants should receive complete information concerning the study’s purpose and methodologies.

What Institutional Review Boards Assess

  • Purpose of the study.

  • Procedures involved in research.

  • Description of participants targeted for the study.

  • Risks associated with participation.

  • Identification of vulnerable populations.

  • Source of funding for research.

  • Relevant research documents and materials.

Considerations for Animal Subjects in Research

  • Animals are often used due to physiological similarities to humans; they can act as acceptable substitutes in ethical research.

  • Oversight by Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees ensures humane treatment and compliance with ethical standards.

  • Regular inspections and approvals are mandatory prior to conducting research involving animals.

Upcoming Topics for Next Session

  • Introduction to Chapter 3 (Biopsychology), covering:

    • Human Genetics

    • Cells of the Nervous System

    • Parts of the Nervous System

  • Discussion prompt: Consider the relationship between biology and identity, particularly regarding the question—without your body, are you still you?