Developmental Psychology and Learning Notes
Developmental Psychology
The study of how people grow, change, and adapt throughout their lives, from fetal development to death.
Research Studies
Longitudinal Study
Studying the same group of people over a long period.
Example: Louisville Twin Study (1958-2000) - approximately 800 twins were studied for about 42 years.
Characteristics:
More expensive.
Long-term.
Less of a snapshot.
Cross-Sectional Study
Studying different groups of people at the same time.
Example: COVID-19 impacts on August 7, 2020, across different age groups (5, 15, 30, 55, 80-year-olds).
Characteristics:
Cheaper.
More short-term.
More of a snapshot.
Importance for Developmental Psychology
Both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies allow a comprehensive understanding of human growth.
Help examine the processes that underlie change.
Help examine the factors that influence development across the lifespan.
Rosenzweig et al (1972) Experiment with Mice
Three conditions:
Control.
Impoverished.
Enriched.
The enriched environment led to:
Bigger and stronger neurons.
Thicker, more developed cerebral cortex (senses).
Larger synapses (up to 50%).
Life Stages of Development
Pre-Birth / Prenatal Development
Gestation stages: Zygote (sperm + egg) → Embryo → Fetus → Birth
Embryo: 9-10 weeks (1st trimester).
Fetus: Sex can be determined (2nd Trimester).
Birth: Approximately 40 weeks (Premature if born at 6 months).
Teratogens: Harmful Outside influences
Examples: Alcohol, drugs, etc.
Maternal illness: Illness of the mother that can be transferred to the child
Examples: Infections, high blood pressure, anxiety/depression.
Genetic Mutation
Examples: Down syndrome (extra copy of 21st chromosome), Turner syndrome (missing X chromosome).
Hormonal Influence
Examples: Oxytocin influences labor, lactation, and love; estrogen influences hormone development.
Environmental Factors: External factors affecting the baby
Examples: Exercise, smoke inhalation, stress.
Infancy
Reflexes are an indication of development
Rooting reflex: Baby moves towards the mother’s nipple.
Imprinting: Ducks follow the first person they see after they are born.
Other aspects:
Infantile amnesia.
Motor development skills.
Visual cliff.
Gross and fine motor skills.
Critical and Sensitive Periods
Critical Periods: Milestones that should be met; concern if not met.
Examples: Imprinting, crawling, standing, walking, pronunciation of native language.
Sensitive Periods: Wider time range; typically, no concern if not met.
Examples: Language acquisition (0-12 years), potty training (0-3 years).
Childhood
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Inattentive, hyperactive, and impulsive.
Boys: More often diagnosed with hyperactivity and impulsivity.
Girls: More often diagnosed with inattentiveness and usually underdiagnosed.
Adolescence
Puberty: Period of sexual maturation.
Growth spurt.
Reproductive Ability: Ability to have children.
Menarche: The first period/menstruation for a girl.
Spermarche: First ejaculation for a boy.
Development of primary and secondary sex characteristics:
Primary: Changes in the uterus, vagina, penis, and testes.
Secondary: Development of breasts and hips, hair growth, voice change.
Selective Pruning
Brain connections that are not used are lost.
Example: Improved emotional regulation with age.
Adulthood
Stress, anger, and worry tend to decrease.
Increased ability to regulate emotions.
Older Adulthood
A steady life throughout adulthood but there is a decline afterward
Reproductive Ability:
Women: Menopause, menstruation ends, and women no longer can have kids.
Men: Can have kids until they die.
Decline in mobility, flexibility, reaction time, sensory input, and stress management.
Death-Deferral Phenomenon: Ability to withhold natural death because an event is coming up.
Sex vs. Gender
Sex: Biological constructions (male or female)
Chromosomes: XX (female), XY (male).
Gonads or hormones.
Intersex: Not having all biological characteristics of a specific sex.
Example: Turner Syndrome.
Gender: Social views
Influenced by society, culture, time, power, relationships, occupations, etc.
Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Expression
Sexual Orientation
One’s enduring attraction towards or lack thereof.
Attraction to one gender, or more.
Gender Identity
One’s internal concept of who they are, whether it be male, female, a combination, or something outside of this binary.
Pronouns: he/him, she/her.
Gender Expression
One’s external expression of their gender (Appearance, behavior, mannerisms, etc.).
How you dress, you speak…
Gender Roles
Social Learning Theory: First, we learn, and then we imitate.
Example: Seeing a man become a CEO, then girls believe they don’t have a chance
Gender Typing: Adopting ideas to fit gender roles.
Example: Men going to the gym because they feel like they should.
Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Theory emerged from observations of children and how they played.
Sensorimotor Stage
Age: Birth to 2 years.
Experiences are informed by movement and senses.
Development of schemas.
Assimilation.
Accommodation.
Intentional actions begin.
Object Permanence
Understanding that objects continue to exist even when hidden.
Preoperational Stage
Age: 2 to 6 years.
Acquires more gross and fine motor skills.
Does not yet understand the conservation of physical properties.
Egocentrism
Begins egocentric and develops the understanding of others.
Imagination
Symbolic thought.
Theory of Mind
Understanding of others' perspectives and beliefs.
Ex: Sally puts her ball in a basket, and Anne takes it, which container will Sally look for her ball?
Animism
Attributing lifelike characteristics to inanimate objects.
Concrete Operational Stage
Age: 6 to 11 years.
Can think logically about physical objects and events.
Conservation
Understanding that properties remain the same despite changes in form.
Example: Pouring water into different glasses.
Reversibility
Understanding that actions can be reversed.
Example: Going from point A to point B and vice versa.
Formal Operational Stage
Age: 11 to 18 years.
Analytical thinking.
Ability to think about abstract concepts.
Hypothetical reasoning.
Mnemonic: Some Old Pretty Eagle Can Clearly Fly Around (Sensorimotor, Object Permanence, Preoperational, Egocentric, Concrete Operational, Conservation, Formal Operational, Abstract Thinking).
Lev Vygotsky’s Theory of Sociocultural Development
With help and guidance, you can eventually learn something.
Social interaction
Scaffolding: Learning a skill one step at a time.
Zone of Proximal Development: What learners can’t do, what they can do with help, and what they can do alone.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Preconventional
Age: 3-7 years.
Focus on self-interest.
Seeking rewards.
Avoiding punishment.
Conventional
Age: 8-13 years.
Focus on maintaining a good person attitude and following the law.
Good boy/girl attitude: Seeking approval.
Law and order morality: Obeying laws.
Post-Conventional
Age: 18+ years.
Focus on the broader impact and ethical principles.
Social contract: Benefit to others.
Universal ethics/principles: Ethical guidelines.
Language
Definition: Symbols, rules, generative, arbitrary ways to communicate with others.
Verbal.
Non-verbal (sign language, emotions, mannerisms, facial expressions, etc.).
Phonemes
Smallest unit of sounds.
Examples: p, a, th, s.
Morphemes
Smallest unit of meaningful sounds.
Examples: -ing, pre-, -s, -ed.
Stages of Language Development
Cooing (2-3 months).
Babbling (4-6 months).
One-word (12-18 months).
Telegraphic speech (18-24 months):
(subject, verb) ex: I hungry
Language Caveats: Overgeneralization (ex: goed vs. went).
Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)
Microsystem: Closest layer to the individual (Direct interactions, such as parental support).
Examples: Family, peers, school, workplace, and neighborhood.
Mesosystem: Interconnections with the micro (Positive or negative effects based on these connections).
Examples: Relationship between child’s teacher and their parents.
Exosystem: Systems that indirectly influence the individual but not a part of direct environment.
Examples: A parent’s workplace policies (Parent’s job stress affecting family dynamics).
Macrosystem: The larger cultural, social, and economic context in which the person lives.
Examples: Cultural values, societal norms, etc. (Influences the shaping of other systems).
Chronosystem: Dimension of time, which includes life transitions and socio-historical changes.
Examples: Changes in family structure - i.e. divorce- (Timing influences development).
Attachment Styles
Secure Attachment: Safe and understood, confident in exploring.
Healthy Skills, emotional regulations, self-esteem.
Insecure Attachment: Clinging and anxious attachment.
No consistent behaviors.
Avoidant Attachment: Caregiving unavailable.
Kid becomes self-reliant, suppresses emotions, and struggles with intimacy.
Anxious Attachment: Caregiving inconsistent.
Some responsiveness, some neglect, and overly clingy/dependent.
Disorganized Attachment: Caregiving is unpredictable and abusive.
Kid becomes stressed and behaves erratically.
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian Parenting: High expectations, low emotional support.
Impact: Fearful, moody, low self-esteem, less connectivity.
Authoritative Parenting: High expectations, high emotional support.
Impact: More confident and more control.
Permissive Parenting: Low expectations, high emotional support.
Impact: Impulsive and moody.
Neglectful Parenting: Low expectations, low emotional support.
Impact: Non-compliant and moody.
Identity
Definition: A self-concept of who you are.
Adolescent Identity Development
Identity Foreclosure: Committing to an identity w/out exploring others.
Identity Diffusion: Not questioning your identity.
Identity Moratorium: Explored all identities but no achievement.
Identity Achievement: Committing your identity.
Social Identity
Def. A self-concept of who you are
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACES)
Definition: A potentially traumatic event that occurs before a child reaches 18 years old
Psychosocial Stages of Development (Erikson)
Trust vs. Mistrust
Age: Infant.
Central Question: Can I trust the world?
A sense of trust develops through consistent caregiving and meeting basic needs.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Age: Toddler.
Central Question: Can I do things myself, or must I rely on others?
Encouraging independence builds autonomy, while overcontrol leads to shame and doubt.
Initiative vs. Guilt
Age: Pre-school.
Central Question: Is it okay for me to do things, act, explore?
Children develop initiative by planning and playing; excessive criticism may cause guilt.
Industry vs. Inferiority
Age: Grade-school.
Central Question: Can I make it in the world of people and things?
Success in school and social activities fosters industry, while failure leads to feelings of inferiority.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Age: Teenager.
Central Question: Who am I, where am I going?
Adolescents explore personal identity, roles, and beliefs; failure to do so leads to role confusion.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Age: Young Adult.
Central Question: Can I love and be loved?
Deep relationships and emotional intimacy develop; failure may result in loneliness and isolation.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Age: Middle-aged adult.
Central Question: How can I contribute to the world?
Focus on career, family, and community contributions; stagnation occurs if one feels unproductive.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Age: Older adult.
Central Question: Did I live a meaningful life?
Reflection on life leads to integrity if it feels fulfilling, or despair if it feels wasted.
Classical Conditioning
Definition: The association between two or more stimuli
Focusing on biological response
Key Terms
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that elicits an automatic or involuntary response (ex: the food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR): Any original response that occurs naturally and in the absence of conditioning (ex: saliva).
Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that does not elicit the reflex or automatic response being studied (ex: bell).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus that is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it can elicit a response it once could not (ex: bell).
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned or acquired response to a conditioned stimulus (ex: saliva).
Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a conditioned response after a rest period or a period of learned response (The reappearance of the spray after a while).
Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between like stimuli and response to specific stimuli only. The conditioned response will only happen for the conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus Generalization: The elicitation of a conditioned response by a (conditioned) stimuli similar but not necessarily identical to the original stimulus.
High-Order Conditioning: Conditioned stimulus used as unconditioned stimulus
Ex: Moving stimuli – the food is given with a bell then a light.
Ex: Doing something wrong, getting in trouble, now you won’t do it again
Primary: Fulfills basic survival (water, food, shelter).
Secondary: Everything else (money, sweets, tickets, etc.).
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner's definition: the process in which behavioral change (i.e. learning) occurs as a function of the consequences of behavior
The Law of Effect (Edward Thorndike): Reinforcement strengthens the behavior while punishment weakens behavior
Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Punishment: Any event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.
Positive: Adding a stimulus.
Negative: Removing a stimulus.
Positive Reinforcement: Increasing the targeted behavior by adding something desirable.
Negative Reinforcement: Increasing the targeted behavior by taking away something.
Positive Punishment: Adding a negative stimulus to decrease behavior.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing a negative stimulus to decrease behavior.
Superstitious Behavior: Occurs when consequences reinforce unrelated behaviors.
Classical Conditioning Example
Children who imitate parents
If someone falls by biking, we won’t want to bike.
Spraying water on someone's face after seeing "Can" with a capital C on paper leads to flinching. The word "can" is read aloud, but its capitalization is revealed only when water is sprayed. The spray is the UCS, flinching at "can" is the UCR, the NS and CS are the word "can," and the CR is flinching.
Reinforcement Schedules
Ratio (Number) | Interval (Time) | |
|---|---|---|
Fixed (Constant) | Reinforcement that comes every x amount of times. Ex: After the 10th scoop of ice cream, you’ll get one for free | Reinforcement that comes every x time unit. Ex: You get paid twice a month, constant but an interval of payment |
Variable (Unpredictable) | Reinforcement that is unpredictable for a # of items. Ex: Casino slot machine is unpredictable, but you will eventually get a win. | Reinforcement that is unpredictable in relation to time. Ex: Post on socials and get likes at random times. |
Social Learning Theory
The theory is that we learn social behavior by observing, imitating, and being rewarded or punished.
Vicarious Conditioning: The idea that we look at people’s actions, if it was reinforced then we do, if it was punished, we don’t do it.
Key Terms
Insight Learning: The sudden realization of a solution to a problem
A-ha moment.
Reaching an epiphany.
Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Driving, you know how to put a car in park because you’ve seen it.
Cognitive Maps: A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
Looking at the classroom and being able to remember there are six tables.
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Definition: Learning through association between stimuli, focusing on biological responses.
Key Components:
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR): Automatic reaction to UCS (e.g., salivation).
Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially produces no specific response (e.g., bell).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): NS that triggers a response after association with UCS (e.g., bell).
Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation).
Key Concepts:
Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of CR after extinction.
Stimulus Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to the CS.
Stimulus Discrimination: Differentiating between similar stimuli.
Higher-Order Conditioning: Using an existing CS as a UCS to condition a new stimulus.
Example:
UCS: Spray of water.
UCR: Flinching.
NS/CS: Word “can.”
CR: Flinching.
Operant Conditioning
Definition: Learning through consequences of behavior (B.F. Skinner).
Key Terms:
Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of behavior.
Primary Reinforcement: Fulfills basic needs (e.g., food).
Secondary Reinforcement: Learned rewards (e.g., money).
Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of behavior.
Positive: Adding a stimulus.
Negative: Removing a stimulus.
Examples:
Positive Reinforcement: Rewarding with candy for good behavior.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing a chore for completing homework.
Positive Punishment: Adding extra chores for breaking a rule.
Negative Punishment: Taking away video games for misbehavior.
Schedules of Reinforcement:
| | Ratio (Number) | Interval (Time) |
| :------ | :------------------------------------------------------------ | :---------------------------------------------------------- |
| Fixed | Every X responses (e.g., 10th scoop free) | Every X time unit (e.g., bi-weekly) |
| Variable | Unpredictable # of responses (e.g., slots) | Unpredictable time (e.g., likes) |
Development (0-18 Years Old)
Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Stages:
Sensorimotor (0-2):
Develop schemas; object permanence.
Preoperational (2-6):
Egocentrism; symbolic thought; animism.
Concrete Operational (6-11):
Logical reasoning; conservation; reversibility.
Formal Operational (11-18):
Abstract thinking; hypothetical reasoning.
Linguistic Development
Cooing (2-3 months)
Babbling (4-6 months)
One-Word Stage (12-18 months)
Two-Word/Telegraphic Speech (18-24 months)
Overgeneralization: Misapplication of rules (e.g., “goed” instead of “went”).
Physical Development
Prenatal: Zygote, embryo, fetus stages.
Infancy: Reflexes like rooting and grasping.
Adolescence: Growth spurts, puberty (e.g., menarche, spermarche).
Adulthood: Declines in mobility, sensory input, and reproduction (e.g., menopause).
Attachment Styles
Secure: Confident exploration.
Avoidant: Emotion suppression.
Anxious: Clingy, fearful of abandonment.
Disorganized: Erratic, confused behavior.
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian: High expectations, low warmth (fearful, low self-esteem).
Authoritative: High expectations, high warmth (confident, self-controlled).
Permissive: Low expectations, high warmth (impulsive, moody).
Neglectful: Low expectations, low warmth (non-compliant, moody).
Major Theories
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory:
Learning via social interaction and scaffolding.
Zone of Proximal Development: Tasks achievable with assistance.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages:
Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy).
Autonomy vs. Shame (Toddler).
Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool).
Industry vs. Inferiority (School-age).
Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence).
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood).
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood).
Integrity vs. Despair (Old age).
Kohlberg’s Moral Development:
Preconventional: Self-interest; avoiding punishment.
Conventional: Upholding laws; social approval.
Post-Conventional: Ethics; social contracts.
Learning Theories:
Social Learning Theory:
Learning through observation, imitation, and consequences.
Vicarious reinforcement/punishment.
Insight Learning: Sudden understanding or realization.
Latent Learning: Learned behavior demonstrated later when needed.
Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of environments.
Define Key Terms:
Sex: Biological characteristics (e.g., XX, XY).
Gender: Socially constructed roles and behaviors.
Sexual Orientation: Attraction (same, opposite, both, none).
Gender Identity: Internal sense of self (e.g., male, female, non-binary).
Gender Expression: Outward display of gender (e.g., clothing, actions).
Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner):
1. Microsystem: Immediate environment (e.g., family, school).
2. Mesosystem: Interconnections (e.g., parent-teacher relationships).
3. Exosystem: Indirect influences (e.g., parental workplace).
4. Macrosystem: Cultural values and norms. (e.g., religion).
5. Chronosystem: Time-based changes (e.g., societal shifts).
Significant Experiments
Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment
What: Albert Bandura conducted an experiment where children observed an adult acting aggressively toward a Bobo doll. Later, when given the opportunity, children who observed the aggressive behavior were more likely to imitate it.
Significance: Demonstrated social learning theory, highlighting the importance of observational learning in behavior acquisition.
Rosenzweig's Rat Enrichment Study
What: Rosenzweig and colleagues placed rats in two environments: one enriched with toys and social companions, and another impoverished and isolated. Rats in enriched environments developed larger and stronger neurons, thicker cerebral cortexes, and more extensive synaptic connections.
Significance: Showed the impact of environmental enrichment on brain development, illustrating neuroplasticity and the interaction of nature and nurture.
Tronick's Still-Face Experiment
What: Edward Tronick asked mothers to interact normally with their infants, then abruptly stop and maintain a neutral, still face. Babies reacted with confusion, distress, and attempts to re-engage.
Significance: Highlighted the importance of attachment and emotional regulation in early child development, emphasizing the sensitivity of infants to caregiver interactions.
Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Experiment
What: Ivan Pavlov trained dogs to associate a neutral stimulus (bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (food). After repeated pairings, the dogs salivated (conditioned response) to the sound of the bell alone.
Significance: Established the foundational principles of classical conditioning, demonstrating how behaviors can be learned through association.
Watson's Little Albert Experiment
What: John B. Watson conditioned a baby, "Little Albert," to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise. Albert later generalized this fear to other white, fluffy objects.
Significance: Demonstrated classical conditioning in humans and supported the principles of behaviorism, showing that emotions like fear can be conditioned.