Macro Final Cards

Importance of Understanding Monetary Policy

• Focus on the roles and actions of the Federal Reserve, Congress, and the President in influencing economic conditions.
• Key topics include measures to combat recession and inflation.

Economic Concepts Related to Money

• Money is defined as any asset generally accepted for goods and services.
• Barter economies:
  • Goods and services are exchanged directly without money, leading to inefficiency.
  • Example: Exchanging Nebraska's corn for Florida's oranges to eventually obtain potatoes from Idaho involves multiple transactions.
  • With money, transactions become simpler and more direct.

Functions of Money

• Medium of Exchange:
  • Facilitates buying and selling without bartering.
  • Example: Paying money for goods or services in a store.
• Unit of Account:
  • Measures the value of goods and services, reflected in pricing.
  • Impacts consumer perception of quality based on price.
• Store of Value:
  • Money can be saved and used in the future without losing its value.
  • Unlike perishable goods that may spoil.
• Standard of Deferred Payment:
  • Allows for credit options and delayed payments, such as mortgages and car loans.

Criteria for Acceptable Money

• Standardized Quality: Uniformity in units is essential.
• Durability: Maintains value and quality over time.
• Valuable Relative to Weight: Must be affordable and easy to transport.
• Divisible: The ability to break it into smaller units without losing value.

Types of Money

• Commodity Money:
  • Has intrinsic value (e.g., gold).
• Fiat Money:
  • No intrinsic value; its value is determined by government decree (e.g., US dollar).
  • Example of cigarettes serving as money in specific contexts like prisons.

Gold Standard

• Money is backed by a physical commodity (gold).
• Issues with the gold standard led to economic volatility and banking inefficiencies.
  • Example: Limited money supply control during economic crises.

Federal Reserve's Role

• Established to manage the money supply and serve as a lender of last resort during crises (e.g., bank runs).
• Failure to act led to bank panics and contributed to the Great Depression.

Current Banking Regulations

• Reserve requirement changes allow banks more flexibility in loaning out funds.
• The requirement was reduced to zero during 2020, increasing the potential risk of bank runs.

Money Supply Definitions

• M1:
  • Includes physical currency in circulation and demand deposits (checking accounts).
• M2:
  • A broader measure including M1 and less liquid forms like savings accounts and CDs.

Emerging Technologies

• Discussion on Bitcoin as a potential component of the money supply; currently not included but may be in the future.

Introduction to the Federal Reserve

• Established to manage monetary policy in the U.S.
• Map of Federal Reserve districts: there are 12 districts, each serving a different region in the U.S.

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)

• Established by Congress in 1934.
• Ensures bank deposits up to $250,000.
• Minimal risk for depositors; the government guarantees refunds.
• Exceptions exist if depositor balances exceed $250,000 or if the bank fails completely.

Federal Reserve Regions and Geography

• Example: The presenter relates their region to the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta.
• Discussion includes how geographical boundaries have evolved over time due to historical events like the Civil War.

Exam Preparation

• The test consists of 29 multiple-choice and 1 short-answer question.
• The syllabus covers definitions and conceptual understanding rather than complex math.
• The exam focuses on the Federal Reserve's actions during economic recessions and fiscal policies.

Monetary Policy Tools of the Federal Reserve

• Open Market Operations:
  • Buying or selling U.S. Treasury securities.
  • Expansionary Monetary Policy:
  • Buying securities increases the money supply.
  • Contractionary Monetary Policy:
  • Selling securities decreases the money supply.
  • Types of Treasury securities:
  • Treasury Bills (short-term, maturing in 1 year or less)
  • Treasury Notes (medium-term, maturing in 2-10 years)
  • Treasury Bonds (long-term, maturing in approximately 30 years)
• Discount Rate:
  • Interest rate charged to banks for loans.
  • Lowering the discount rate encourages borrowing/investment.
  • Raising the discount rate discourages borrowing.
• Reserve Requirements:
  • Minimum reserve ratio banks must keep.
  • Currently at 0%, meaning banks can lend all deposits.
  • Lowering reserve requirements increases the money supply.
  • Raising reserve requirements decreases the money supply.

Economic Cycles

• Recession:
  • High unemployment and slow economic activity.
  • The Federal Reserve intervenes to increase the money supply and lower interest rates to combat recession.
• Inflation:
  • Occurs when the money supply grows faster than real GDP.
  • The Federal Reserve may tighten the money supply to combat inflation.

Quantity Theory of Money

• Equation: MV = PY
  • Where:
  • M = Money supply
  • V = Velocity of money
  • P = Price level
  • Y = Real GDP
• Growth rates can be expressed:
  • Gm + Gv = Gp + Gy
• Main takeaway:
  • If the money supply grows faster than real GDP, inflation results.

Historical Example of Hyperinflation

• Zimbabwe's hyperinflation:
  • Over 15 billion percent inflation at one point.
  • Example of currency losing value due to excessive money printing.

Fiscal Policy Definition

• Fiscal Policy: Enacted by Congress and the President to influence the economy through taxation and government spending decisions.

Distinction from Monetary Policy

• Monetary Policy: Conducted by the Federal Reserve, involving the money supply and interest rates.
• Fiscal policy differs as it includes specific actions related to government spending and taxation, aimed at manipulating economic conditions.

Goals of Fiscal Policy

• Expansionary Fiscal Policy: Used during recessions to reduce unemployment by increasing government purchases or cutting taxes.
  • Example: Increasing defense spending or infrastructure projects.
• Contractionary Fiscal Policy: Implemented when inflation is high to decrease spending, often through tax hikes or reduced government expenditure.

Automatic Stabilizers vs. Discretionary Fiscal Policy

• Automatic Stabilizers: Elements that automatically adjust based on economic changes without direct government intervention (e.g., tax revenues increase as incomes rise).
• Discretionary Fiscal Policy: Specific policy actions taken by the government to adjust spending and taxes for economic intervention.

Key Components of Government Spending

• Government Expenditures: Total spending by the government, which includes transfer payments (welfare, unemployment benefits) that do not directly purchase goods or services.
• Government Purchases: Expenditures for goods and services that the government buys (e.g., military equipment).

Revenue Sources

• Predominantly from income taxes, followed by FICA taxes and corporate taxes.

Transfer Payments

• A significant portion of expenditures, with a large share going to Social Security and public benefits.

Long-term Challenges with Social Security

• Funding Shortage: Projections indicate a significant budget shortfall in Social Security due to demographic changes (decreasing birth rates).
• Suggestions for Reform: Potential solutions include increasing taxes, reducing benefits, and adjusting eligibility age.

Fiscal Policy Tools Available to Congress and President

1. Change in government purchases.
2. Adjustment of business taxes.
3. Modification of income taxes.

Impact of Policies on Economic Graphs

• Graph Analysis: Understanding how fiscal policies (expansionary vs. contractionary) affect the economy's movement in graphs showing real GDP and price levels.
  • Expansionary moves from recession point (A) to full employment (B).
  • Contractionary moves back to equilibrium when inflation is too high.

Multipliers in Fiscal Policy

• Government Purchases Multiplier: Indicates that a change in government spending produces a larger effect on GDP than the initial spending amount due to subsequent economic activity.
  • A $1 increase in government spending may lead to a $4 increase in GDP if the marginal propensity to consume (MPC) is 0.75.
• Tax Multiplier: A change in taxes also leads to multiplier effects, but typically less impactful than government spending.
  • A $1 tax cut may lead to a $3 increase in GDP (if MPC is 0.75).

Limitations of Fiscal Policy

• Timing Issues: Delays in approval and implementation of fiscal measures can lessen their effectiveness. Monetary policy adjustments can be made quickly.
• Political Challenges: Politicians are often hesitant to increase taxes or cut popular programs, making necessary fiscal adjustments politically unpopular.
• Crowding Out Effect: Increased government spending can lead to higher interest rates, reducing private sector investment, thus offsetting some of the intended impacts of fiscal policies.

Class Structure

• The class session was affected by technical issues; only the second recording was recorded correctly.
• The presentation today is short (9 slides), covering the last chapter of the course.
• A review session is scheduled for Thursday before the exam on May 6.

Chapter Overview

• Topic: Inflation, Unemployment, and Federal Reserve Policy.
• Conceptual framework similar to previously covered material.
• No assignments assigned for this presentation.

Key Concepts and Graphs

• Aggregate Demand and Unemployment:
  • When aggregate demand increases (curve shifts right), unemployment falls and inflation rises.
  • Inverse relationship: Higher inflation rates correlate with lower unemployment.
• Negative Demand Shift:
  • When aggregate demand decreases (curve shifts left), inflation falls and unemployment rises.
  • Again, an inverse relationship is observed.

Stagflation

• Definition:
  • Occurs when both inflation and unemployment rise.
• Complex economic scenario needing careful management from the Federal Reserve.

Phillips Curve

• Named after A.W. Phillips, graphically represents the relationship between inflation and unemployment rates.
• Short Run Phillips Curve: Downward sloping, showing an inverse relationship.
• Long Run Phillips Curve: Vertical, represents the natural rate of unemployment (about 5% for most economists).
• Movement along the curve indicates changes in actual inflation versus expected inflation.

Key Formulas and Real Wage Calculation

• Real Wage Formula:
  • Real Wage = (Nominal Wage / Price Level) × 100
  • Example: A $30/hour wage at a price level of 105 results in a real wage of approximately $28.57.
• Effect of Inflation on Real Wage:
  • If actual inflation exceeds expectations, real wages decline, making labor cheaper for employers.

Economic Implications

• Response to Unexpected Inflation:
  • If inflation is higher than expected, the cost of labor decreases, leading employers to hire more workers.
  • Conversely, if inflation is lower than expected, real costs increase, leading to potential layoffs.

Federal Reserve Policy

• During stagflation, the Fed might prioritize controlling inflation over reducing unemployment.
• Historical reference to Paul Volcker, who adopted contractionary policies in the 1980s to curb inflation.

Review Summary

• Key concepts to focus on during the review:
  • Inverse relationships between inflation and unemployment.
  • Understanding of the Phillips curve dynamics and its implications for monetary policy.
  • Familiarity with real wage calculations and their significance in economic terms.
  • Possible exam questions may cover the response of the Fed during different economic scenarios, particularly stagflation.

Short Answer Question

• The exam includes a single short answer question related to stagflation and monetary policy.
  • Question: Suppose the economy is experiencing stagflation. Is the modern chairman of the Federal Reserve more likely to respond with an expansionary monetary policy or contractionary monetary policy?
  • Answer: Contractionary monetary policy is preferred because inflation is the top priority, even though in the long run, unemployment can fix itself.

Exam Structure

• Exam Consists of:
  • 29 multiple choice questions
  • 1 short answer question
• Students may need to analyze provided graphs but are not required to draw them.

Multiple Choice Policies

• Expansionary vs. Contractionary Monetary Policy:
  • Expansionary Policy: Used to shift the economy from point A to point B to stimulate growth.
  • Contractionary Policy: Would be the response to inflation concerns; involves actions like selling treasury securities or raising the discount rate.

Federal Reserve Functions

• The Federal Reserve (Fed) can implement monetary policy through:
  • Buying treasury securities
  • Lowering the discount rate
  • Lowering the required reserve ratio
• Contractionary policy involves:
  • Selling treasury securities
  • Raising the discount rate
  • Raising the required reserve ratio

Fiscal Policy

• Congress and the president implement fiscal policy, dealing with:
  • Government Purchases: To stimulate the economy, it involves increasing government purchases and lower taxes (i.e., business and income taxes).
• Effects of Tax Changes:
  • Lowering business taxes increases funds for investment.
  • Lowering income taxes increases disposable income for consumers.

Graph Interpretation

• Several graphs may be included in the exam. These can indicate movements between different economic points:
  • Example question: Movement from point A to B can illustrate the effects of either expansionary or contractionary monetary policies.
  • Students may see variations of similar graphs depicting different scenarios (using different policy actions).

Phillips Curve Basics

• The natural rate of unemployment when inflation is stable or expected inflation is depicted on the Phillips curve. Important metrics are:
  • If inflation rises (to 15%), unemployment could temporarily decrease.
  • If inflation decreases (to 5%), the short-run unemployment rate goes up (to 7.5%).

Money Market Mechanics

• The money supply curve affects interest rates based on whether a policy is expansionary or contractionary:
  • Expansionary monetary policy shifts the money supply curve right, decreasing interest rates.
  • Contractionary monetary policy shifts the money supply curve left, increasing interest rates.

Interest Rates Impact

• Interest rate changes affect different economic sectors equally:
  • An increase in interest rates typically decreases consumption, investment, and net exports.
  • Conversely, a decrease in interest rates typically leads to increased spending in those sectors.

Fiscal Policy Challenges

• Key issues with fiscal policy include:
  • Delay in approving policy changes (both in implementation and legislation).
  • Political challenges affecting fiscal decisions.
  • Crowding out of private investment due to increased government spending.

Additional Concepts

• Commodity Money vs. Fiat Money:
  • Commodity Money: Has intrinsic value (e.g., gold, silver).
  • Fiat Money: Value is derived only as currency without inherent value.
• Hyperinflation: Defined as extraordinarily high inflation rates, typically above 50% annually.
• Federal Funds Rate: The interest rate banks charge each other for overnight loans. It is a target rate for the Fed when implementing monetary policy.

Study Focus

• Be familiar with the relationships and their implications:
  • Expansionary policies increase real GDP and the price level.
  • Contractionary policies typically decrease them.
• The Fed's monetary policy goals include:
  • Price Stability
  • High Employment
  • Economic Growth
  • Stability of Financial Markets

Aggerate Demand

• The equation for aggregate demand includes consumption, investment spending, and net exports.
• Government purchases are related to interest rates and affect all components of aggregate demand.

Federal Reserve (The Fed) and Monetary Policy

• Discount Rate
  • Lower discount rate increases bank reserves.
  • Higher discount rate decreases bank reserves.
  • The exam will present scenarios asking how changes in the discount rate affect the money supply (expansionary or contractionary monetary policy).
  • Lowering the discount rate is an expansionary policy, increasing the money supply.

M1 and M2

• M1: Currency in circulation, checking account deposits, and savings account deposits.
• M2: Includes M1 plus other items like mutual funds.
• Exam questions will provide a definition, and you'll need to identify what it describes (e.g., Barter).

Graphs and the Economy

• No direct graph interpretation questions.
• Expansionary monetary policy
  • Impact on money supply: Increases. (Money Market Graph)
  • Impact on interest rates: Decreases. (Money Market Graph)
  • Impact on GDP: Increases (Aggregate Demand Curve shifts to the right).
• Contractionary monetary policy
  • Impact on money supply: Decreases.
  • Impact on interest rates: Increases.
  • Impact on GDP: Decreases.

Money Demand Curve

• Factors that shift the money demand curve:
  • Change in real GDP.
  • Change in the price level.
• Increase in real GDP or price level
  • Shifts the money demand curve to the right.
  • Increases the interest rate.
• Decrease in real GDP or price level
  • Shifts the money demand curve to the left.
  • Decreases the interest rate.

Aggregate Demand and Supply

• Expect questions similar to those in assignments from chapters 25 and 26.
• Focus on how to shift the economy from one point to another.

Phillips Curve

• No questions about shifting the Phillips curve.

Key facts to know:

• Expected inflation rate is 10%.
• The natural rate of unemployment (long-run unemployment rate) is 5%.

Short Run Implications:

• If the inflation rate is 7.5%, then the unemployment rate would be 7.5%.
• If the inflation rate is 12.5%, then the unemployment rate would be 2.5%.