Views on Education
History of Education
Mass Education and Economic Development
Mass education is a feature of modern industrial societies where most of the population experiences formal schooling.
Pre-industrial societies did not require formal education as most lived and worked at home.
Industrialisation created a need for a literate and numerate workforce.
Relationship between formal education and the workplace is complex.
The structure of education reflects ideological beliefs about its purpose and its connections to social institutions.
Functionalism
Functionalists see society as a system with interconnected institutions, each performing essential functions.
Key Concepts:
Agency of Socialisation:
Schools help individuals adopt societal norms and values explicitly (through lessons) and implicitly (through interactions).
Role Allocation:
Established by the Education Act (1944), classifies students into academic or vocational paths based on the 11+ intelligence test.
Tripartite System:
Students divided into three types of schools reflecting beliefs about intelligence and economic needs.
Secondary Education - Worldwide Context
Functional division reflected globally (e.g., academic and vocational tracks in India and Pakistan).
Separation of academic vs vocational reflects beliefs about two work forms:
Professional careers needing deep knowledge.
Non-professional work needing practical skills.
Durkheim - Education and Division of Labour
Education teaches essential skills for occupations in a complex industrial society.
Promotes social solidarity through cooperation among specialists.
Schools teach both general values and specific skills.
Davis and Moore (1945)
Suggest that the most capable individuals fill functionally important roles, creating a meritocratic system where education 'sifts and sorts' individuals according to ability.
Criticisms of the Functionalist View
Tumin (1953) challenges the objective measurement of functional importance, questioning the hierarchical pay structure.
Claims meritocracy is flawed as wealth enables access to better education.
Marxism
Bowles and Gintis (1976) - Schooling in Capitalist America
Argue that education reproduces social class inequality rather than being meritocratic.
Correspondence Principle:
Schooling mirrors workplace organization and relationships.
Hidden Curriculum:
Students learn social values and norms outside formal lessons, preparing them for a compliant workforce.
Bourdieu (1986)
Claims that meritocracy is a myth and that education perpetuates the dominance of higher social classes through cultural reproduction.
Althusser (1971)
Schools serve as an ideological state apparatus, molding students to accept hierarchical social structures and their future positions.
Social Mobility in Education
Definitions:
Inter-generational Mobility: Between generations (parent vs child).
Intra-generational Mobility: Within an individual's lifetime.
Status in contemporary societies based on achievements (talent and effort) instead of ascribed characteristics.
Inequalities of Outcome
Developed through testing and examinations; requires objective evaluation and equality of opportunity.
Modern education systems often reflect 'sponsored mobility': advantages for upper and middle class children due to cultural capital and resources at their disposal.
Mass Education and Economic DevelopmentMass Education and Economic Development
Functionalists: View education as a meritocratic bridge between family and economy.
Marxists: Argue that education reinforces capitalist exploitation and class inequalities.
Education and the Economy
The New Right perspectives acknowledge the basic relationship outlined by Davis and Moore.
General agreement exists among New Right thinkers regarding this relationship.
They argue that the traditional societal structures no longer exist due to rapid changes in the past 40 years resulting from globalisation.
Changes in Society
Rise of Service Industries: There has been a steady rise in general service industries and computer-based service technologies.
These industries are predominant in post-industrial society, known for their flexibility and speed of change.
This transformation questions the existing distinction between academic and vocational education in modern systems.
New Right View
The New Right asserts that the rigid division between "academic" and "vocational" subjects is inflexible for a globalized economy.
Long-term decline in manufacturing has been contrasted with the rise of financial and service sectors over the past 50 years.
The nature of economic production has evolved, necessitating changes in the education system.
Changes in Education
New Right advocates propose several changes:
Breaking down the divisions between academic and vocational subjects.
Shifting from a purely knowledge-based curriculum to one focused on functional knowledge and skills, including teamwork and problem-solving abilities.
Narrowing distinctions between various knowledge types and skills.
New Right thinkers argue for a meritocratic schooling system where educational success or failure results from personal choices.
Saunders (1996) social mobility reflects life choices and asserts that winners and losers in meritocratic societies are determined by individual choices, not class, ethnicity, or gender.
Saunders
Middle class parents' investment in their children's education, combined with the children's efforts, often leads to higher qualifications.
While upward mobility isn't guaranteed, such investments typically safeguard against downward mobility.
The New Right views differences in achievement as a result of individual choices rather than systemic issues.
The New Right (Neo-liberalism)
Neoliberal ideology has global ramifications, positioning education as crucial for success in a competitive market.
Emphasis on vocational training has risen, focusing on skills necessary for future jobs.
Global Education Inc (2012) by Stephen J. Ball highlights global organisations' roles (e.g., World Bank, WTO) in influencing education policies worldwide.
The New Right favours privatisation of schools over state control, promoting marketisation where parents and children have broad choices.
Marketisation: Opening the supply and consumption of educational goods and services to competition.
Neoliberalism considers marketisation essential for raising educational standards, motivating institutions to compete for students' choices.
Problems with Marketisation
Parentocracy
The term "parentocracy" describes the power parents exert to influence their children's education.
Marketisation may restrict mobility for lower socioeconomic children whose parents cannot afford alternative educational options.
Cultural Capital
Intelligent working-class students often lack the economic and cultural capital enjoyed by others, limiting their opportunities in underperforming schools.
Cultural Capital: Background advantages (e.g., exposure to arts and education, reading) that give individuals a competitive edge.
Criticisms of Neoliberal Perspective
Competition and choice may not significantly improve standards, with studies indicating only small improvements.
Market dynamics may lead to selective student admissions, where successful schools attract primarily middle-class students.
Ranson (1996) criticises market-driven education for promoting self-interest over cooperation and nurturing values.
The education system is at risk of becoming an "exam factory," prioritising test results over creative and critical thinking.
Social Democratic
Social democracy emphasises state representation of the population.
A democratic system is vital for ensuring equality of opportunity, enabling every member to succeed.
Similar to functionalists, social democrats view education as essential for equality and economic growth.
They acknowledge societal inequalities that hinder equal educational opportunities.
This theory, associated with theorists like Emile Durkheim, argues that education serves an essential function in maintaining social order and integrating diverse individuals into society.
Durkheim asserts that education instills moral values and develops social solidarity by aligning individual interests with those of society.
Evidence from comparative education studies (e.g., Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reports) indicates that countries with strong social democratic policies—such as those in Scandinavia—tend to have higher educational outcomes, reduced inequality, and greater levels of social mobility.
Studies show that initiatives aimed at reducing educational inequality (such as free school meals and funding for disadvantaged schools) can significantly improve academic achievement among lower socioeconomic groups.
Conflict Theory:
While traditionally critical of education, certain conflict theorists, like Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, can support social democratic perspectives.
They argue that comprehensive schooling can alleviate social class inequalities by providing equal access to quality education for all classes.
Criticisms of Social Democratic Views
New Right Perspectives:
The New Right critiques social democracy for advocating state control over education and argues that marketisation promotes efficiency and choice, asserting that competition raises standards.
Thinkers like Charles Murray argue that state welfare, including education, weakens individual responsibility.
Postmodernism:
Postmodernists, such as Jean-François Lyotard, contest the universality of social democratic theories.
They argue that education cannot address the fragmented nature of society and the diverse needs of an increasingly pluralistic population.