William Graham Sumner on Social Darwinism and Civil Liberty Study Notes

Biographical Context of William Graham Sumner

  • Identity and Affiliation: William Graham Sumner was a sociologist at Yale University.
  • Intellectual Standing: He is historically recognized as a primary proponent of the philosophy of Social Darwinism.
  • Source Material: The transcript is derived from several of his writings produced around the 1880s, specifically collected in "The Challenge of Facts and Other Essays," edited by Albert Galloway Keller and published by Yale University Press (1914).

The Fundamental Law of Nature and Struggle

  • The Struggle Against Nature: Sumner posits that the core struggle for human existence is directed against nature.
    • He describes nature as having a "niggardly hand."
    • Human beings must "wrest" the satisfaction of their needs from nature’s limited resources.
  • Competition as a Natural Law:
    • Because resources are in "meager supply," fellow men become competitors.
    • Competition is defined explicitly as a "law of nature."
  • Nature’s Neutrality:
    • Nature is characterized as entirely neutral.
    • Nature submits only to the individual who "most energetically and resolutely assails her."
    • The rewards of nature are granted to the "fittest" without any other considerations.

The Relationship Between Liberty and Inequality

  • Proportionality of Rewards: In a system of liberty, what men acquire (their "having and enjoying") is strictly in proportion to their essence and actions ("their being and their doing").
  • The Consequences of Amending Nature: Sumner argues that attempting to fix the inequalities produced by nature results in a specific set of negative outcomes:
    • Taking from the "better" and giving to the "worse."
    • Deflecting penalties from those who have "done ill" and throwing them onto those who have "done better."
    • Taking rewards from the successful to subsidize the unsuccessful.
  • The Survival of the Unfittest: By lessening inequalities through intervention, society favors the "survival of the unfittest."
  • Survival through Destruction of Liberty: This redistribution can only be accomplished by destroying liberty.

The Strict Social Alternative

Sumner provides a binary choice or alternative for the structure of society, asserting that it is impossible to go outside these two options:

  1. The Progressive Path: Liberty, Inequality, Survival of the Fittest.
    • Result: Carries society forward and favors its "best members."
  2. The Regressive Path: Not-liberty, Equality, Survival of the Unfittest.
    • Result: Carries society downwards and favors its "worst members."

Definition and Scope of Civil Liberty

  • Historical Context: For approximately three hundred years, humanity has attempted to understand and realize the concept of liberty.
  • Technical Definition: Liberty is defined as "civil liberty" or "liberty under law."
    • It consists of the "guarantees of law that a man shall not be interfered with while using his own powers for his own welfare."
  • Political and Civil Status:
    • Liberty is a status defined by the nation’s institutions.
    • The freest institutions are those where the guarantees of "peace for the laborer" and "security for the capitalist" are at their highest level.
  • Continuance of Struggle: Civil liberty does not eliminate the struggle for existence. Sumner likens the removal of the struggle for existence to the removal of the need for eating, stating they are effectively the same thing.

The Evolution of Industrial Competition

  • Transition from Force to Industry: Civil liberty transforms human competition from "violence and brute force" into "industrial competition."
  • The Industrial Virtues: In this refined competition, men vie for material goods using a specific set of virtues:
    • Industry
    • Energy
    • Skill
    • Frugality
    • Prudence
    • Temperance
  • Persistence of Inequality: This shift does not remove inequality. However, society moves from a system where the "man of the heaviest fist" wins to one where the "man of the highest training" gains the highest reward.

The Role and Value of Capital

  • Inequality of Capital: It is physically and economically impossible for a man with capital and a man without capital to be equal.
    • Tool Analogy: A man without a tool cannot produce as much food from the ground as a man with a "spade or a plough."
    • Defense Analogy: A man without a weapon cannot defend himself as well against "hostile beasts or hostile men" as a man who possesses a weapon.
  • The Superiority of Capital: Capital is sought because the individual who possesses it is superior in attaining "all the ends of life."
  • Defense of Wealth: Sumner criticizes the "platitudes" that circulate in society regarding wealth.
    • He suggests that young people should be taught that it is "not wicked to be rich."
    • He argues it is not wicked to be "richer than your neighbor."
  • Capital as the Foundation of Civilization: To denounce capital is to undermine civilization itself.
    • Capital is the "first requisite" for every social gain.
    • Specific areas dependent on capital include: educational, ecclesiastical, political, and aesthetic gains.