Washington and Adams Administrations

Washington’s Selection and the Establishment of Precedents

Unanimous Choice: George Washington was the unanimous selection to serve as the first President of the United States. * Reasons for Selection: 1. His leadership during the Revolutionary War. 2. He presided over the Constitutional Convention. 3. He had gained the admiration and respect of his peers.
Definition of Precedent: "An earlier action that serves as an example for others."
Established Precedents: As the first president, Washington was charting a new path and set several examples for future leaders: * The Cabinet: He was the first to create a group of personal advisors. * The Oath of Office: A sworn statement that he would serve and protect the country. He famously added the phrase "so help me God" at the end. * The Farewell Address: Upon leaving office, he gave an address to provide advice to future presidents.
Inauguration: * Definition: To formally admit someone to public office. * Post-Inauguration: After the ceremony, Washington had to address multiple problems facing the new nation.

The Five Primary Dilemmas of the Washington Administration

Dilemma #1: How would Washington repay the very large national debt?
Dilemma #2: How would Washington use the government’s new power?
Dilemma #3: How would Washington approach the potential for conflict regarding new land and protect Americans?
Dilemma #4: How would Washington deal with foreign nations?
Dilemma #5: How would the development of political parties forever change America?

The First Presidential Cabinet

Washington knew he could not govern alone, so he created a group of personal advisors known as the Cabinet. The original positions included:

Secretary of War (Henry Knox): * Purpose: Ensures American safety at home and abroad; holds power over the military.
Secretary of Treasury (Alexander Hamilton): * Purpose: Responsible for balancing the budget, responsible spending, and debt repayment.
Secretary of State (Thomas Jefferson): * Purpose: Promotes foreign affairs and American communication with the rest of the world.
President (George Washington): * Purpose: Represents the "face of the American Republic."
Attorney General (Edmund Randolph): * Purpose: Highest legal advisor; represents the United States in the Supreme Court during hearings.

The Judiciary Act of 1789

One of Washington's first legislative actions was the Judiciary Act of 1789, which established the structure of the federal court system:

Supreme Court Membership: It established the number of members on the Supreme Court at six ( $6$ ).
Chief Justice: John Jay was appointed as the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.
Lower Courts: It created thirteen ( $13$ ) lower courts.
Final Authority: It established the Supreme Court as the final authority on legal matters.

Hamilton’s Financial Plan and the National Debt

The Crisis: The United States had racked up massive war debt from the Revolutionary War that needed to be repaid. Under the Articles of Confederation, the government could not tax and could only request money from states.
Alexander Hamilton's Role: As Secretary of the Treasury, he developed a financial plan to control the crisis.
Quick Write - Hamilton's View on Debt: The transcript suggests Hamilton viewed debt as a "I scratch your back, you scratch mine" situation, implying that owing people money (like a loan) can create a vested interest in the government's success.
The Three Parts of Hamilton's Plan: 1. Create Tariffs: Implementation of taxes on imported goods. 2. Excise Tax: Place a tax on certain domestic goods, most notably whiskey. 3. National Bank: Combine all state debt from the Revolutionary War into one national debt and create a National Bank to manage it.
Opposition to the Banking Plan: * Some argued the government lacked the authority to create a bank because it was not stated in the Constitution. * Jackson/Jefferson Opposition: Opponents (noting Jefferson specifically in the cabinet context) believed the plan was unconstitutional and unfair. They argued that combining state debt hurt the South because Southern states had already paid back much of their debt and shouldn't have to help the North.
The Compromise: Hamilton's Financial Plan was accepted in exchange for moving the nation's capital to the South (Washington D.C. was created).

The Whiskey Rebellion

The Cause: Farmers in Pennsylvania were having trouble getting their corn to market before it spoiled. To prevent spoilage, they distilled the corn into whiskey.
The Conflict: Under Hamilton's Plan, this whiskey was subject to a tax. The farmers rose up in protest.
Washington’s Response: Washington personally led the army (the only time a sitting president has done so), sending $13,000$ troops to stop the riots.
Outcome: The rebellion ended. Washington arrested $20$ men, but all were eventually pardoned.
Significance: This action showed that Washington was not afraid to use the new power of the government and the Constitution to maintain order.

Land Ordinances and Western Conflict

Land Ordinance of 1785: * Purpose: The government needed to sell off Western lands to settlers to gain revenue since it lacked the power to tax effectively. * Structure: Established an orderly process for laying out western townships in $6 \times 6$ mile sections ( $36$ square miles). * Townships: Each township consisted of $36$ "lots." Some lots were sold as-is, while others were broken into parts. * Education: Section $16$ of each township was dedicated specifically to public schools.
Northwest Ordinance of 1787: * Purpose: Gave structure to the Northwest (NW) territory. * Statehood: Residents could apply for statehood once the population reached $60,000$ people. * Territories: Created future states including Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin (OH, MI, IN, IL, WI). * Slavery: Slavery was outlawed in Northwest lands, marking the first attempt by the U.S. to address the issue of slavery.
Conflict with Native Tribes: * Americans moving west faced tension with native tribes. * Battle of Fallen Timbers: Took place in NW Ohio. Chief Blue Jacket of the Miami tribe fought against American expansion. * General "Mad" Anthony Wayne: Sent by Washington, Wayne was victorious in the conflict. * Treaty of Greenville (1795): The Miami tribe was forced to give up $25,000$ square miles of land but received a promise of peace.

Foreign Policy: The French Revolution and Neutrality

The French Revolution: Began shortly after Washington's inauguration with the storming of the Bastille Prison in Paris.
American Support: Many Americans (including Thomas Jefferson) wanted to join the war to help France, as they were fighting for personal liberties similar to those in the American Revolution.
Proclamation of Neutrality: Washington issued this proclamation and refused to get entangled in the war. He sided with Hamilton, arguing that the U.S. was too weak to fight and had nothing to gain.
Jefferson’s Resignation: Feeling slighted by Washington's consistent siding with Hamilton (including on the issue of France), Jefferson resigned from the Cabinet.

Relations with Britain and the Jay Treaty

Conflict with Britain: In $1794$ , France and Britain went to war. The U.S. remained neutral, but Britain began capturing U.S. merchant ships headed to France and began the practice of impressment. * Definition of Impressment: To force someone to serve in the army or navy.
Jay Treaty Negotiations: Washington sent John Jay to Britain to find a solution. Key issues included: 1. British occupation of forts along the Great Lakes. 2. U.S. demand for payment for damaged ships. 3. British provision of weapons to Native Americans in the West.
Results of the Jay Treaty: The treaty was considered disheartening by many Americans: * Britain agreed to vacate forts (but ultimately did not). * No mention was made regarding weapons for Native Americans. * Britain agreed to some compensation for damages but provided no agreement to stop seizing U.S. ships. * Public Reaction: Many Americans were furious, even calling for Washington to resign.

Washington’s Farewell Advice and Political Parties

Washington’s Farewell Address Advice: 1. Stay out of foreign affairs. 2. Keep religion relevant as it teaches morals. 3. Take care of the government (enemies want the U.S. to fail). 4. Avoid political alliances (political parties).
The Birth of Political Parties (1796): Despite Washington's warnings, the Election of $1796$ saw the rise of two parties: * Federalists: 1. Led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams. 2. Hamilton could not be President because he was born in the West Indies. 3. Supported a strong federal government. 4. Believed the government could use the "Elastic Clause" to expand power where necessary. * Democratic-Republicans: 1. Led by Thomas Jefferson. 2. Wanted more control for the states. 3. Believed the government should be strictly limited by the Constitution.

The Presidency of John Adams

Father of the Navy: John Adams is credited with this title for urging the growth of the American Navy.
The XYZ Affair: * French ships were seizing and impressing U.S. sailors headed toward British ports. * Adams sent three diplomats to negotiate. * The diplomats were met by three Frenchmen (referred to as X, Y, and Z by Adams in his briefing to Congress) who demanded a bribe to stop the seizures. * Response: American diplomats refused, stating: "Millions for defense, not one cent for tribute!"
The Quasi-War: An undeclared sea war between Revolutionary France and the U.S.
The Alien and Sedition Acts: * Passed by Adams and the Federalist-controlled Congress to target pro-French sentiment. * Targeted French citizens in the U.S. and Democratic-Republicans. * Permitted the arrest of foreigners who publicly criticized the government and allowed for their detention or deportation at will. * Reaction: This prompted Jefferson to write to several states urging them to abolish the acts (and in some contexts, the Constitution).

The Election of 1800 and the Judiciary

The Election of 1800: Different from past elections because there was a tie between the two Democratic-Republican candidates (Jefferson and Burr).
Result: Thomas Jefferson became President.
12th Amendment: Changed the process so the President and Vice President are elected on separate ballots as a "team."
Midnight Judges: In his final days, Adams appointed many Federalist judges (like John Marshall as Chief Justice) to ensure Federalist influence remained.
Judicial Review: Established the power of the Supreme Court to check laws to make sure they do not violate the Constitution.

Questions & Discussion

Q: How were the President and Vice-President elected in $1789$ ?
A: The candidate with the most votes became President, and the second-place candidate became Vice-President.
Q: What was NOT a challenge Washington faced?
A: The country being angry because they did not want him as President (he was unanimously chosen).
Q: What is a tariff?
A: A tax placed by a country on all imported goods.
Q: Why did some Americans support the French vs. the British during the Revolution?
A: Some supported France because they helped the U.S. during the American Revolution. Others supported Britain because of trade importance. Washington chose neutrality.
Q: How did Federalists and Democratic-Republicans view the Constitution and Government?
A: According to the student test section: Federalists believed in following the Constitution strictly [Note: Other notes say loose] and a strong central government. Democratic-Republicans believed in following the Constitution loosely [Note: Other notes say strict] and more power to the states.