New Spain's Northeastern Frontier to 1767 - Quick Notes

Chichimecas and the Northern Frontier

European standards failed to capture Indian diversity; diverse tribes and critical trade partners overlooked.
Silver rushes triggered frontier expansion; fortunes were uneven.
Chichimecas resisted Spanish subjugation through sustained armed conflict; disease and warfare spurred ethnogenesis.
Mestizaje emerged, creating a new mestizo culture; Catholic orders aimed to civilize Indians toward Spanish ideals.

Settling New Mexico

Strategic aim: control and access to wealth and souls in the region.
1595: Juan de Onate’s expedition to religiously colonize; 1598: credited Thanksgiving.
Absence of precious metals led to limited prosperity (sheep ranching and subsistence farming).
Communication with the rest of New Spain was difficult.
1659: Missions and presidios established at key crossing: Mission Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de los Mansos.

Pueblo Revolt of 1680

Sparked by Spanish abuses: suppression of native beliefs, labor exploitation, and local conflicts between missionaries and officials.
Pueblo populations numbered in the tens of thousands;
Attacks killed 21 missionaries and 400+ settlers.
Survivors fled to Paso del Norte; Gov. Antonio de Otermin established separate settlements.

The Growth of Paso del Norte

Settlements evolved into a major trade center on El Camino Real.
Late 17th century: natives familiar with European goods and Spanish ways; focus on trade and missionary contact.
Great Northern Revolt: tribes’ insurrection forced Spaniards from the region; Europeans later re-entered and reasserted influence.

La Salle’s French Threat

Rene Robert Cavelier Sieur de La Salle sought to settle at the mouth of the Mississippi, aiming for fur trade and control of mining districts.
Shipwreck at Matagorda Bay; many returned home; some remained, later mutinies; La Salle and his brother were killed.
Karankawas defeated remaining French settlers; only 5 children were taken by Karankawas.

Search for La Salle and First Occupation of Texas

Alonso de León found remnants of La Salle’s colony (French texts, household items, remains).
Rumors spread of the 5 surviving children; orders to burn the colony and recover the children.
Spaniards sought ties via ceremonial rituals; initial occupation attempts failed due to lack of reciprocal trade, floods, and other issues; province abandoned in 1694.

Sparking Spanish Texas Reoccupation

Spain was overextended and underpopulated; revival was needed.
French presence remained the greatest rival in North America.
Discovery of a French trader with designs for Texas and mining spurred action; Captain Domingo Ramon led the response.
Inclusion of families aimed to ease tensions with the Caddos for better trade; missionaries wary of distance to the nearest presidio.
The early mission-presidio model reached its functional limits.

Spanish Occupation Expanded

Aim: avoid past failures by moving quickly and strategically.
Martin de Alarcon established a mission-presidio on the upper San Antonio River (limited success).
Friar Olivares founded Presidio de Bexar and Mission San Antonio de Valero (the Alamo).
Ongoing conflict culminated in a full Spanish–French war in 1719; Chicken War ensued when French held missionaries and guards; soon after, East Texas was abandoned.

The “Queen” is Formed

Royal decree increased fortifications to support intensified missionary efforts in San Antonio.
Marques de San Miguel de Aguayo spearheaded strengthening efforts in Texas.
Mission San Jose y San Miguel de Aguayo nicknamed the “Queen of the Missions.”
Best-equipped mission with strong native relations; Aguayo’s efforts reopened all previous missions in East Texas.
Mission to replace La Bahia highlighted the failure of the French La Salle colony.

Early Spanish – Indian Relations

Some groups welcomed Spanish (e.g., Sanas).
Apache threats made missions less safe havens; 20-year warfare turbulent the region.
Raids encouraged movement south toward more profitable missions.
Both sides exchanged goods and people; Karankawas remained a threat; relocations of settlements for water and terrain did not ensure safety.
No real interest in rapid Christian conversion; need for new blood, but locals were insufficient.

A New Plan to Colonize

Mexico City viewed Texas as a money pit; Colonel Pedro de Rivera inspected conditions and found overstaffed and undisciplined forces.
Downsized missions and presido protection; civilian population remained low.
Canary Island transplants (Isleños) arrived in 1731: planned 400; actual arrivals 56 due to cost and delays.
Isleños settled at San Antonio de Béxar; land conflicts with established military settlers; Béxar became the most diverse settlement with irrigation, village compounds, and mayordomos (overseers).

First Civilian Community

Isleños formed a town with ayuntamiento (local government).
Aggregados (military settlers) were barred but later pressures altered the arrangement.
Lipan Apaches remained a top concern; 1749 Apache treaty after a prior 4-year ceasefire ceremonial signings.

Spanish Push to South Texas

Growing English presence raised fears about Seno Mexicano (south of the Rio Grande).
Soldier-statesman José Escandón planned rapid settlement to secure key locations.
Relocation of La Bahía proved profitable; lumber production rose and livestock became primary income.
Intermarriage with presidio soldiers boosted population growth.

Lower Rio Grande Settled

Escandón’s settlements thrived; total population reached 6,385 (vs. 1,800 in 1722).
Tomás Sánchez established the town of Laredo in 1755.
Communities were ethnically and socioeconomically diverse; missionaries unhappy with civilian-focused directives; decline of missions as natives sought ranches nearby.
Land grant distribution led to tensions; authorities pushed for narrower land grants with river access.

Desert Blooms at Paso del Norte

Crucial junction between New Mexico and Chihuahua; trading hub for goods and services.
Climate, soil, and Rio Grande water supported a desert oasis with surplus production (wines, brandies, raisins, wheat) for mining camps to the south.
Population grew from around 1000 to 5000 over 65 years.
Genízaros integrated into Spanish society; mission communities prospered while maintaining distinctive character.
Apache raids intensified due to Comanche pressure; settlers adapted to violence.

Missionary Expansion into Central Texas

Mission San Antonio de Valero served as a hub; friars sought more missions to extend influence.
Mission San Francisco Xavier de Horcasitas contributed but was constrained by distance, drought, disease, and discipline problems.
May 1752: murders of missionaries and a commander’s lover caused crisis; relocation ended the establishment’s record.

Spaniards in Apachería

Goal: convert Lipan Apaches; Apaches brought bands to San Antonio missions as a sign of good faith.
Franciscans shifted strategy to peace via a Mission in Apachería; Mission San Sabá completed but failed to flourish.
3000 Apaches arrived but soon departed to hunt buffalo and raid Norteños.
Norteños: broad coalition against Lipan Apaches; coexistence fragile.

Spaniards in Apachería cont.

Alliance of sorts persisted as rest stops; most refused to stay long-term.
1758: Apache war party attacked the mission compound; 2 friars and eight others killed.
Colonel Parrilla led a 500-man expedition against Wichitas and Tonkawas (with Apache allies); failed near Gainesville.
It took about three decades to reestablish Wichita control in North Texas.

Effects of French Rivalry on Spanish-Indian Relations

Two major problems plagued the frontier: failing presidio–mission system and inability to shield Indians from foreign access.
Spanish policy against trading firearms hindered economy and protection.
French traders established a post on the lower Trinity River, spurring renewed Spanish efforts.
Presidio San Agustín de Ahumada established on the lower Trinity; contraband rampant in East Texas (e.g., Nacogdoches) due to weak policy and commerce.

Conclusion

Semiarid South Texas saw ranching expansion; long-lasting economic shifts.
Competition from the French, Wichitas, and Comanches challenged Spanish sovereignty.
Failures of various missions undermined the presidio–mission system.
A new approach was deemed necessary for future viability.