PSY 100 - Midterm Study Guide Notes

Midterm Study Guide (PSY 100)

Chapter 1 – Psychology as a Science & Research Methods

• Must-know:

  • Definition of Psychology:

  • The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

  • Why it’s a Science:

  • Uses the scientific method, which involves systematic observation, measurement, and testing.

• Perspectives in Psychology:

  • Biological/Neuroscience:

  • Focuses on genes, brain function, neurotransmitters, and hormones.

  • Behaviorism:

  • Concentrates on observable and measurable behavior, the environment, and learning processes.

  • Cognitive:

  • Examines thinking, memory, decision-making, and problem-solving; mental processes are inferred from behavior.

  • Evolutionary:

  • Explains behavior through the lens of natural selection.

  • Eclectic:

  • Integrates multiple perspectives to fully explain behavior.

• Hypotheses:

  • Definition:

  • A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

  • Descriptive vs. Causal Hypotheses:

  • Descriptive: Predicts relationships or descriptions.

  • Causal: Predicts cause-and-effect relationships.

• Research Designs:

  • Experiment:

  • The only method capable of testing causal hypotheses.

  • Key Components:

    • Independent Variable (IV):

    • The manipulated cause in the experiment.

    • Dependent Variable (DV):

    • The measured outcome influenced by the IV.

    • Experimental Control and Random Assignment:

    • Essential features that ensure the reliability of the experiment.

    • Double-blind Method:

    • A procedure where neither participants nor the researchers interacting with them know the group assignment, reducing biases.

  • Correlation:

  • Measures the association between variables but cannot infer causation; useful for prediction only.

  • Survey:

  • An efficient method for collecting data on descriptive and correlational hypotheses.

  • Case Study:

  • Provides in-depth analysis of a single or unusual case, which limits generalizability.

• Pseudopsychology:

  • Claims presented as science without rigorous evidence, such as horoscope-type statements.

• Ethics in Research:

  • Fundamental principles include informed consent, minimizing harm, ensuring confidentiality, the right to withdraw from study, and debriefing participants after research.

• Quick Tips & Traps:

  • “Only experiments show causation.”

  • Remember: IV causes changes in DV → think "Cause → Consequence."

  • Double-blind arrangements help reduce expectancy and placebo biases.

• Self-check (maps to your items):

  • Causal tests require what? → Experiment with manipulation & control.

  • “A hypothesis is…?” → Testable prediction.

  • “Behaviorism emphasizes…?” → Observable behavior.

  • “Cognitive psychologists study…?” → Thought, memory, knowledge, decision-making.

  • “Double-blind: who knows groups?” → Neither participants nor interacting researchers (only data manager).

  • “Correlation can be used for… not for…?” → Prediction, not causation.

Chapter 2 – Biopsychology: Brain & Nervous System

• Must-know:

  • Neurons:

  • Composed of dendrites (receive information), cell body (processes information), axon (sends information), and terminal buttons.

  • Synapse:

    • The tiny gap where neurotransmitters cross between neurons.

  • Neurotransmission vs. Endocrine:

  • The nervous system utilizes electrochemical signals through neurons (fast communication).

  • The endocrine system utilizes hormones through the bloodstream (slower and widespread effects).

  • The hypothalamus links the nervous and endocrine systems via the pituitary gland.

  • Divisions of the Nervous System:

  • CNS:

    • Comprises the brain and spinal cord.

  • PNS:

    • Divided into somatic (voluntary control) and autonomic (involuntary control, further divided into sympathetic “fight/flight” and parasympathetic “rest/digest”).

  • Lobes & Key Areas of the Brain:

  • Frontal Lobe:

    • Responsible for planning, judgment, motor control, and includes Broca’s area for speech production.

  • Parietal Lobe:

    • Contains the somatosensory cortex, which processes touch and body position sensations.

  • Occipital Lobe:

    • Houses the visual cortex, responsible for processing visual information (e.g., visual sensations after a hit).

  • Temporal Lobe:

    • Contains the auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area for language comprehension.

  • Contralateral Wiring:

  • The left side of the brain processes the right side of the body, and vice versa.

  • Methods of Brain Study:

  • EEG: Measures brain wave activity.

  • fMRI/PET: Maps brain activity by monitoring blood flow and metabolic activity.

  • Numerical Data:

  • It is estimated that there are approximately 86-100 billion neurons in the human brain, with “~86 billion” being the commonly cited estimate.

• Self-check:

  • Dendrites are…? → Branch-like receivers of neural signals.

  • Definition of Synapse? → The gap where neurons communicate.

  • The role of the hypothalamus? → Maintains homeostasis; links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

  • Split-brain surgery is used to treat…? → Severe epilepsy.

  • Wernicke’s area damage results in…? → Fluent but meaningless speech and difficulty comprehending language.

  • Symptoms of sympathetic activation include…? → Increased heart rate/respiration indicative of the fight-or-flight response.

Chapter 3 – Sensation & Perception

• Must-know:

  • Sensation vs. Perception:

  • Sensation refers to sensing energy through sensory modalities, while perception is the interpretation of that sensed energy.

  • Transduction Sites:

  • Vision:

    • Occurs at the retina where rods and cones convert light into neural signals sent through the optic nerve.

  • Hearing:

    • Involves hair cells in the cochlea that convert sound waves into neural signals.

  • Taste:

    • Occurs at taste buds that respond to chemical stimuli.

  • Smell:

    • Involves olfactory receptors that detect airborne chemicals.

  • Balance (Vestibular):

    • Managed by semicircular canals and vestibular sacs that help maintain balance.

  • Thresholds:

  • Absolute Threshold:

    • The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.

  • Just Noticeable Difference (JND) / Difference Threshold:

    • The smallest detectable change; governed by Weber’s law, which states that the difference is proportional to the original stimulus.

  • Information Processing:

  • Bottom-Up Processing:

    • Data-driven processing where features combine to form a whole perception.

  • Top-Down Processing:

    • Knowledge and expectations influence perception; context can create errors or illusions.

  • Depth Cues:

  • Binocular Cues:

    • Includes retinal disparity (the difference between images from each eye) and convergence (the extent to which eyes turn inward).

  • Monocular Cues:

    • Include linear perspective, texture gradient, interposition, relative size/height, and light/shadow perceptions.

  • Perceptual Constancies:

  • Maintain stable perception despite changes in sensory input; includes shape, size, and color constancy.

  • Color Vision:

  • Cones are the photoreceptors that process color; a lack of functioning cones leads to color blindness and poor visual acuity.

• Self-check:

  • Absolute threshold example? → Detecting a tone in at least 50% of trials.

  • Weber’s law states: A small change, like an extra teaspoon in a small amount of sugar, is easier to notice when the baseline amount is weak.

  • The vestibular sense is critical for balance and relies on semicircular canals.

  • Top-Down processing can mislead leading to perceptual illusions, such as the dress color debate influenced by different lighting assumptions.

  • Binocular cues rely on input from two eyes to create depth perception through disparity and convergence.

Chapter 4 – Consciousness & Sleep

• Must-know:

  • Circadian Rhythms:

  • ~24-hour biological cycles governed by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN); melatonin secretion increases at night, promoting sleepiness.

  • EEG & Sleep Stages:

  • Stages include NREM (N1, N2, N3 slow-wave sleep) and REM (vivid dreaming stage; active brain but body is paralyzed).

  • Sleep Needs:

  • Most adults require about 7-9 hours of sleep; note that many acquire less sleep during weekdays.

  • Connection Between Sleep & Memory:

  • Sleep consolidates learning; studying combined with appropriate sleep is more effective than cramming.

  • Sleep Disorders:

  • Insomnia:

    • Characterized by difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep; can be improved through sleep hygiene and maintaining regular sleep schedules.

  • Narcolepsy:

    • Characterized by sudden REM sleep attacks during the day, leading to excessive daytime sleepiness.

  • Sleep Apnea:

    • Characterized by snoring and pauses in breathing during sleep.

  • Microsleeps:

  • Brief seconds-long lapses in alertness experienced by sleep-deprived individuals.

• Self-check:

  • Jet lag results from circadian misalignment due to travel across time zones.

  • The hormone released at sundown that promotes sleepiness is melatonin.

  • The hardest stage to awaken from is N3 (deep sleep).

  • REM vs NREM:

  • REM is characterized by vivid dreaming and atonia (muscle paralysis), while NREM is associated with deeper physical rest.

  • Best insomnia treatment tips include maintaining a consistent sleep schedule, avoiding late caffeine, reserving the bed for sleep only, and establishing a wind-down routine.

Chapter 7 – Memory

• Must-know:

  • Three Processes of Memory:

  • Encoding:

    • The first step of memory; involves converting sensory input into a form that can be stored.

  • Storage:

    • The second step; involves maintaining information over time.

  • Retrieval:

    • The final step; involves accessing the stored information when needed.

  • Three Stages of Memory (Traditional Model):

  • Sensory Memory:

    • An ultra-brief stage that retains raw sensory input, with types like iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memories.

  • Short-term/Working Memory (STM/WM):

    • Characterized by limited capacity (often considered 7±2 items, typically around 4 chunks) and lasting about 15–30 seconds without rehearsal.

  • Long-term Memory (LTM):

    • A relatively durable and vast storage system with a significant capacity for retention.

  • Rehearsal Techniques:

  • Maintenance Rehearsal:

    • Involves rote repetition to keep information in STM for a longer time.

  • Elaborative Rehearsal:

    • Involves associating new information with existing knowledge and creating meaningful connections, which is optimal for transferring information to LTM.

  • Encoding Methods:

  • Semantic Encoding:

    • Involves encoding the meaning of information; the most effective method for LTM retention.

  • Types of Long-term Memory:

  • Explicit (Declarative) Memory:

    • Divided into episodic (personal experiences/events) and semantic (facts and information).

  • Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory:

    • Includes procedural memory (skills and tasks), priming (previous exposure affects current performance), and classical conditioning (learned associations).

  • Forgetting Theories:

  • Various theories explain forgetting, including:

    • Decay Theory:

    • Suggests that memories fade over time.

    • Interference Theory:

    • Proactive interference (older memories interfere with new ones) and retroactive interference (new memories interfere with the retrieval of older ones).

    • Motivated Forgetting/Repression:

    • A controversial concept suggesting that individuals may unconsciously forget painful or traumatic memories.

  • Eyewitness Memory:

  • It is reconstructive in nature and can be vulnerable to errors; leading questions may distort recall accuracy.

  • Chunking Technique:

  • Groups items into larger units of information to expand STM capacity effectively.

• Self-check:

  • Sensory memory helps us…? → Briefly register raw information before significant processing occurs.

  • Second stage in the three-stage model? → Short-term/Working memory.

  • Repeating directions aloud exemplifies…? → Maintenance rehearsal.

  • Memory type for “first date” recollections? → Episodic memory.

  • Average capacity of STM is about 7±2 digits; chunking allows for more significant information retention.

  • Explicit vs. Implicit Memory? → Explicit involves conscious recall of facts/events, whereas implicit includes unconscious skills and processes (priming).

  • Retrieval Tasks:

  • Differentiates between recall (no prompts) and recognition (identification among presented options).

  • Interference Example:

  • Difficulty recalling teachers' names caused by newer names learned (retroactive interference).

  • Repression:

  • A controversial theory of motivated forgetting, where painful memories linger below conscious awareness.

Chapter 12 – Stress, Health, & Coping

• Must-know:

  • Stressors:

  • Life events (e.g., job change), catastrophes, and daily hassles, which cumulatively have a significant impact on stress levels.

  • Appraisal Process (Lazarus):

  • Primary Appraisal:

    • Determines whether a situation is irrelevant, benign-positive, a threat, or a challenge.

  • Secondary Appraisal:

    • Evaluates available coping resources and options.

  • Challenges are appraised lower for stress and provide more opportunities for growth.

  • General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye):

  • A model of stress response comprising three phases:

    • Alarm Stage:

    • Body's initial reaction (SNS activation leading to fight-or-flight response; adrenaline release).

    • Resistance Stage:

    • Sustained response where the body attempts to adapt to the stressor (increased cortisol).

    • Exhaustion Stage:

    • Results from prolonged stress with potential immunosuppression and increased illness risk.

  • Coping Strategies:

  • Problem-focused Coping:

    • Strategies to change the stressor itself, effective when the individual has control.

  • Emotion-focused Coping:

    • Strategies to manage emotional reactions, such as reappraisal, relaxation techniques, or seeking social support; best when the stressor is uncontrollable.

  • Differentiating Cognitive Reappraisal (intentional reframing of a situation) from defense mechanisms (unconscious methods to cope).

  • Learned Helplessness (Seligman):

  • A psychological condition resulting from exposure to uncontrollable aversive events; leads to passivity and resignation.

  • Hardiness (The 3 C’s):

  • Involves three key factors: Commitment, Control, Challenge; positively associated with better health outcomes.

  • The opposite of hardiness is low hardiness, characterized by feelings of powerlessness and avoidant behavior.

  • Health Psychology Applications:

  • Includes stress-management planning for individuals with medical conditions, such as cardiac patients.

• Self-check:

  • The greatest source of stress for most people is…? → Daily hassles and ongoing demands, primarily work-related.

  • Fight-or-Flight Response:

  • Characterized by activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS).

  • The Exhaustion Stage leads to…? → Immunosuppression and increased vulnerability to illness.

  • When capable of taking action, employ problem-focused coping; if not possible, resort to emotion-focused coping.

  • Learned helplessness arises from exposure to uncontrollable shocks.

  • The 3 C’s of Hardiness are: Commitment, Control, Challenge.