1.2 Anatomy and Pathology; Pathology

Organisation of the Human Body

Introduction to Anatomy

  • Overview of the historical progression of anatomical knowledge.

Greek Period (BC)

  • Conducted observations on sick, wounded, and dismembered individuals.

  • Hippocrates:

    • Founder of scientific medicine.

    • Identified and treated many diseases.

    • Recorded the human skeleton, muscles, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system, heart, etc.

    • Did not distinguish between nerves and tendons (e.g., aponeurosis).

  • Alexandria, Egypt:

    • Initiated the first systematic dissections on live animals and humans.

    • Named the duodenum (Latin: means "twelve inches long").

    • Described lymphatics, brain ventricles, sinuses, bile ducts, and heart valves.

    • Differentiated between nerves, tendons, veins, and arteries.

Roman Period to Renaissance

  • Restoration of anatomical knowledge and advances in medical education.

  • Conducted dissections on newly sacrificed or sentenced criminals.

  • Use of pigs and other animals for studying internal organs.

  • Body donations became essential for anatomy and medical education.

  • Emergence of textbooks, illustrations, and literature as major study resources.

  • Development of various sub-disciplines of anatomy:

    • Surface, systematic, microscopic, functional, clinical, comparative, developmental.

Anatomical Position

  • Standing upright

  • facing forward at observer

  • mouth is closed and facial expression is neutral

  • Arms by the side and palms of hands facing forward

  • Feet flat on the floor and close together

  • Toes pointing forward

Directional Terms

  • Essential for describing body structure locations relative to one another.

Key Directional Terms

  • Superior: Towards the head.

    • Example: Nose is superior to mouth.

  • Inferior: Towards the toes.

    • Example: Stomach is inferior to heart.

  • Anterior (ventral): Towards the front.

    • Example: Sternum is anterior to heart.

    • Ventral: The anterior surface

    • Palmer: The anterior surface of the hand

    • Plantar: The base surface of the foot

  • Posterior (dorsal): Towards the back.

    • Example: Scapula is posterior to ribs.

  • Rostral: Towards the superior-anterior tip.

  • Caudal: Towards the inferior-posterior tip (tail).

  • Medial: Nearer to the midline.

    • Example: Umbilicus is medial to elbow.

  • Lateral: Farther from the midline.

    • Example: Thumb is lateral to little finger.

  • Ipsilateral: On the same side as another structure.

    • Example: Right arm and right leg are ipsilateral.

  • Contralateral: On the opposite side as another structure.

    • Example: Left elbow and right elbow are contralateral.

  • Proximal: Closer to the axial body attachment.

    • Example: Knee is proximal to foot.

  • Distal: Further from the axial body attachment

    • Example: Wrist is distal to elbow.

Organisation of the Human Body

Axial and Appendicular Regions

  • Axial Region:

    • The head (Cephalic), neck (cervical), and trunk (central body mass).

  • Appendicular Region:

    • Comprises limbs (upper limbs and lower limbs).

Planes and Sections

  • Planes: Imaginary flat surfaces passing through the body.

  • Sections: Resultant surfaces from cutting the body along planes.

  • Types of Planes:

    • Sagittal Plane: Divides body into left and right sides.

      • Mid-sagittal plane: Divides the body int equal halves

      • Para-sagittal plane: Divides the body into unequal halves

    • Transverse (horizontal) Plane: Divides body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.

    • Frontal (coronal) Plane: Divides body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

Using Anatomical Language

  • Derivation from Latin, Greek, and Arabic.

  • Terminologia Anatomica: International standardized terminology.

  • Structure of anatomical terms including:

    • Adjectives from Nouns

      • Humerus has a head = Humeral head

      • Ulna has an artery near it = Ulnar artery

    • Plurals out of nouns

      • The plural of Femur is Femora and not Femurs

      • The plural of Alveolus is Alveoli and not Alveoluses

      • The plural of Foramen is Foramina and not foramens

    • Making diminutives (little versions)

      • A little vein is called venule

      • A little canal is canaliculi

      • A little lobe is lobule

What is Pathology?

  • Pathology: Study of disease; examines structural, biochemical, and functional changes in cells, tissues, or organs.

  • Methods: Molecular, microbiologic, immunological, and morphological techniques.

  • Categories:

  • General Pathology vs. Systemic Pathology.

Aspects of Disease in Pathology

  1. Cause/etiology (predispositions/risk factors).

  2. Mechanisms of development (pathogenesis).

  3. Biochemical and structural alterations in cells/organs.

  4. Functional consequences of changes (clinical manifestations).

Historical Forefathers of Pathology

  • Hippocrates (400 BC): Proposed the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile).

  • Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1700s): Correlated symptoms with organ changes at autopsy.

  • Rudolf Virchow (1800s): Studied hypertrophy, hyperplasia, inflammation, thrombosis, etc.

Modern Pathology Techniques

  • Enhanced by technological advancements for accuracy in diagnosis.

  • Utilize genetic profiles for personalized medicine.

  • Conduct pathogen, biochemical, and histological analyses to aid diagnoses.

  • Virchow’s principles are still valid

Inflammation: Protective Response

  • Inflammation acts as a protective mechanism against injury and harmful agents.

  • Body has evolved various mechanisms to combat injuries, including skin barriers, enzymes, and immune responses.

Basic Pathological Processes

  • Include trauma, infections, chemical reactions, nutritional imbalances, and genetic derangements that may lead to injury and disease.