APUSH Period 7

William H. Seward - U.S. Secretary of State under Presidents Lincoln and Johnson, known for his strong advocacy of U.S. expansionism, including the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867, which was initially mocked as "Seward's Folly" but later seen as a strategic and resource-rich acquisition.

Monroe Doctrine - A key U.S. foreign policy doctrine established in 1823 under President James Monroe, declaring that the Western Hemisphere was closed to further European colonization and interference, laying the groundwork for future U.S. interventions in Latin America.

Queen Liliuokalani - The last reigning monarch of Hawaii, who sought to restore native Hawaiian control over the islands but was overthrown by U.S.-backed sugar planters and businessmen in 1893, paving the way for Hawaii’s annexation by the U.S.

Pan-American Conferences - A series of meetings starting in the late 19th century aimed at fostering economic cooperation, diplomatic unity, and trade among the nations of the Americas while reducing European influence in the region.

“New Imperialism” - A period of U.S. overseas expansion during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, driven by economic interests, military strategy, and a belief in cultural superiority, leading to control over territories like Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

Alfred Thayer Mahan - Influential naval strategist whose book, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, argued that control of the seas through a strong navy was essential for a nation's global dominance, heavily influencing U.S. foreign policy.

Darwinism - A concept derived from Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection, often applied to justify imperialism and economic competition by suggesting that stronger nations or individuals naturally dominate weaker ones.

Expansionists - Advocates for the growth of U.S. territory and influence, supporting policies such as the annexation of Hawaii, the acquisition of Alaska, and intervention in foreign affairs to promote national interests.

Josiah Strong - A prominent Protestant clergyman who promoted U.S. imperialism as a divine mission to spread Christianity and Western civilization to "less civilized" peoples, as outlined in his book Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis.

“Jingoism” - A form of extreme nationalism characterized by aggressive foreign policy and a belligerent attitude, often driving public support for military actions like the Spanish-American War.

Cuban revolt - A series of uprisings by Cuban nationalists in the late 19th century seeking independence from Spanish rule, which gained U.S. sympathy and ultimately led to American intervention in the Spanish-American War.

“Yellow journalism” - Sensationalized and exaggerated news reporting, particularly by newspapers like those of William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, used to provoke public outrage and stir support for the Spanish-American War.

Sinking of the Maine - The explosion of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana Harbor in 1898, killing over 260 Americans, which became a rallying cry ("Remember the Maine!") for U.S. intervention in Cuba despite unclear evidence of Spanish involvement.

Teller Amendment - A resolution passed by Congress in 1898 promising that the U.S. would not annex Cuba after the Spanish-American War and would support Cuban independence.

“A splendid little war” - A phrase used by Secretary of State John Hay to describe the Spanish-American War, highlighting its brevity, low casualty rate for Americans, and significant territorial gains for the United States.

The Philippines - An archipelago in Southeast Asia acquired by the U.S. after the Spanish-American War; it became a site of conflict as Filipinos, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, resisted American colonization in the Philippine-American War.

George Dewey - U.S. naval commander who led the successful attack on the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay during the Spanish-American War, solidifying U.S. control over the Philippines.

Rough Riders - A volunteer cavalry regiment led by Theodore Roosevelt, composed of diverse recruits, that became famous for their heroic charge up San Juan Hill during the Spanish-American War.

Puerto Rico - A Caribbean island ceded to the U.S. by Spain under the Treaty of Paris in 1898, becoming an unincorporated U.S. territory and a focal point of debates over imperialism.

Guam - A Pacific island captured during the Spanish-American War, later serving as a key U.S. naval base and strategic outpost in the Pacific.

Treaty of Paris - The 1898 agreement ending the Spanish-American War, in which Spain ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the U.S. and recognized Cuban independence.

Emilio Aguinaldo - Filipino revolutionary leader who initially allied with the U.S. against Spain but later led a resistance against American colonization in the Philippine-American War.

Anti-Imperialist League - A coalition of politicians, intellectuals, and activists who opposed U.S. annexation of foreign territories, arguing it was contrary to the nation’s democratic and anti-colonial principles.

Insular Cases - A series of Supreme Court decisions in the early 20th century ruling that full constitutional rights did not automatically extend to people in U.S. territories, such as Puerto Rico and the Philippines.

Platt Amendment 1901 - A U.S. policy inserted into the Cuban Constitution allowing U.S. intervention in Cuban affairs and the lease of naval bases, including Guantanamo Bay.

Spheres of influence - Areas where specific foreign nations exercised economic and political control, particularly relevant in China during the late 19th century as major powers carved out zones for trade.

Open Door Policy - U.S. diplomatic initiative aimed at ensuring equal trading rights for all nations in China and preserving Chinese territorial integrity, countering exclusive spheres of influence by European powers.

Boxer Rebellion - An anti-foreign, anti-Christian uprising in China (1899–1901) led by the "Boxers" that was suppressed by an international coalition, including U.S. forces, further entrenching foreign influence in China.

“Big stick” diplomacy - Theodore Roosevelt’s approach to foreign policy, emphasizing peaceful negotiation backed by the implicit threat of military force, summarized by the phrase "speak softly and carry a big stick."

Theodore Roosevelt - 26th President of the United States, known for his progressive reforms, "Big Stick" diplomacy, and efforts to expand U.S. influence globally, including the construction of the Panama Canal.

Panama Canal - A strategic waterway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, built by the U.S. after supporting Panama’s independence from Colombia; completed in 1914.

Roosevelt Corollary - An extension of the Monroe Doctrine stating that the U.S. could intervene in Latin America to maintain stability and protect its interests, often leading to military interventions.

Russo-Japanese War - A conflict between Russia and Japan (1904–1905) over imperial ambitions in East Asia, which Roosevelt helped mediate, earning him the Nobel Peace Prize.

“Gentlemen’s Agreement” - An informal 1907 agreement between the U.S. and Japan where Japan limited emigration to the U.S., and the U.S. reduced discriminatory policies against Japanese immigrants.

Great White Fleet - A fleet of U.S. battleships sent on a world tour (1907–1909) by Roosevelt to demonstrate American naval power and promote goodwill.

William Howard Taft - 27th President of the United States who continued progressive reforms and promoted "Dollar Diplomacy" to expand U.S. influence through economic investments abroad.

“Dollar diplomacy” - Taft’s foreign policy focused on promoting U.S. financial interests abroad, particularly in Latin America and East Asia, as a means of securing American influence.

Woodrow Wilson - 28th President of the United States, known for his progressive domestic reforms and leadership during World War I, promoting the League of Nations and his “Fourteen Points” for peace.

Pancho Villa - A Mexican revolutionary leader who conducted raids into the U.S., prompting President Wilson to send the U.S. Expeditionary Force to capture him, though they failed.

“Expeditionary force” - The U.S. military group sent to Mexico under General John J. Pershing in 1916 to capture Pancho Villa following his raids on American soil.

Lincoln Steffens - Muckraking journalist who exposed corruption in city governments in his book The Shame of the Cities, promoting progressive reforms.

Secret ballot - A reform ensuring privacy for voters to make choices without fear of coercion or retaliation, promoting democratic integrity.

Robert LaFollette - Progressive leader and governor of Wisconsin who advocated for political and economic reforms, including the “Wisconsin Idea” of government transparency and direct democracy.

Direct primary - A system where voters, rather than party officials, choose candidates for general elections, increasing public participation in the political process.

Direct election of U.S. Senators - Achieved through the 17th Amendment, allowing voters rather than state legislatures to elect senators directly.

17th Amendment - Constitutional amendment passed in 1913 establishing the direct election of U.S. senators by popular vote.

Initiative, referendum, recall - Tools of direct democracy that allow citizens to propose laws, vote on laws directly, and remove public officials from office before their term ends.

“Wisconsin idea” - Reforms initiated by Robert LaFollette that emphasized government accountability, regulation of industry, and increased public involvement in democracy.

Temperance and prohibition - Movements aimed at reducing alcohol consumption, culminating in the 18th Amendment, which banned the manufacture and sale of alcohol.

National Child Labor Committee - An organization that fought to end child labor in the United States and promote compulsory education.

Triangle Shirtwaist fire - A tragic factory fire in New York City in 1911 that killed 146 workers, leading to significant workplace safety reforms.

“Square Deal” - Theodore Roosevelt’s domestic agenda focused on fairness in business, labor, and consumer protection, emphasizing the government’s role in ensuring justice.

Trust-busting - Efforts, particularly under Roosevelt, to break up monopolies and restore competition in industries dominated by trusts.

“Bad trusts” & “good trusts” - Roosevelt’s distinction between harmful monopolies that abused power and those that operated fairly and efficiently, warranting regulation rather than dissolution.

Elkins Act 1903 - A law aimed at ending discriminatory practices in the railroad industry by prohibiting rebates and unfair pricing.

Hepburn Act 1906 - Legislation that strengthened the Interstate Commerce Commission's authority to regulate railroad rates and practices.

The Jungle - A novel by Upton Sinclair exposing unsanitary conditions in the meatpacking industry, leading to significant food safety reforms.

Upton Sinclair - Author of The Jungle, whose work led to public outrage and the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act.

Pure Food and Drug Act - A 1906 law prohibiting the manufacture and sale of adulterated or mislabeled food and drugs, ensuring consumer safety.

Meat Inspection Act - A 1906 law that established federal inspection of meat processing to ensure sanitary conditions.

Conservation - Efforts to preserve natural resources and protect the environment, championed by Roosevelt with the creation of national parks and forest reserves.

Mann-Elkins Act 1910 - A law that extended the authority of the Interstate Commerce Commission to regulate telecommunications, such as telephone and telegraph rates, and strengthened federal oversight of railroads.

16th Amendment - A constitutional amendment ratified in 1913 that allowed the federal government to collect an income tax, providing a steady revenue source independent of tariffs.

Socialist party - A political party advocating for public ownership of industries and economic equality, gaining prominence in the early 20th century with leaders like Eugene V. Debs.

Eugene V. Debs - Labor leader and five-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party who advocated for workers’ rights, economic reform, and opposition to World War I.

Bull Moose Party - A progressive political party founded by Theodore Roosevelt in 1912 after a split in the Republican Party, focusing on reforms such as women’s suffrage and regulation of big business.

New Nationalism - Roosevelt’s progressive platform in the 1912 election, advocating for social justice, stronger federal regulation of the economy, and expanded government power.

New Freedom - Woodrow Wilson’s 1912 campaign platform emphasizing smaller government, competition, and anti-trust laws to break up monopolies.

Underwood Tariff - A 1913 law that significantly lowered tariffs and introduced a graduated income tax to compensate for lost revenue, reflecting progressive economic policies.

Federal Reserve Board - Established under the Federal Reserve Act of 1913, this board oversees the central banking system, managing monetary policy and regulating banks to ensure economic stability.

Clayton Antitrust Act - A 1914 law that strengthened antitrust laws by prohibiting unfair business practices and protecting labor unions from being targeted as monopolies.

Federal Trade Commission (FTC) - A government agency established in 1914 to prevent unfair business practices, protect consumers, and promote competition.

Child Labor Act 1916 - A law prohibiting the interstate sale of goods produced by child labor, later struck down by the Supreme Court for exceeding federal authority.

Booker T. Washington - African American leader who advocated for racial uplift through vocational education, economic self-reliance, and accommodation to segregation.

W.E.B. DuBois - African American intellectual and activist who co-founded the NAACP and advocated for immediate civil rights, higher education, and political representation for Black Americans.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) - Founded in 1909, an organization dedicated to achieving civil rights and ending racial discrimination through litigation, advocacy, and education.

National Urban League - Established in 1910, an organization focused on helping African Americans migrate to urban areas and secure employment and housing.

National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) - A leading organization advocating for women’s voting rights, led by figures like Susan B. Anthony and Carrie Chapman Catt.

Alice Paul - A suffragist and leader of the National Woman’s Party who used more militant tactics to advocate for women’s voting rights, playing a significant role in the passage of the 19th Amendment.

National Woman’s Party - Founded by Alice Paul, this organization pushed for women’s suffrage through direct action and constitutional amendments, employing protests and civil disobedience.

19th Amendment - Ratified in 1920, this amendment granted women the right to vote, marking a major victory for the women’s suffrage movement.

League of Women Voters - An organization established in 1920 to educate voters and promote civic participation, especially among newly enfranchised women.

Margaret Sanger - Advocate for birth control and founder of organizations that later became Planned Parenthood, promoting reproductive rights and women’s health education.

Neutrality - A policy of non-involvement in international conflicts, initially adopted by the U.S. at the start of World War I.

Allied Powers - The coalition of nations, including Britain, France, and Russia, that fought against the Central Powers during World War I.

Central Powers - The alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire during World War I, opposing the Allied Powers.

Submarine warfare - A military strategy used by Germany in World War I, involving unrestricted attacks on Allied and neutral ships, which contributed to U.S. entry into the war.

Lusitania - A British passenger ship sunk by a German U-boat in 1915, killing 1,198 people, including 128 Americans, sparking outrage and moving the U.S. closer to involvement in World War I.

Sussex Pledge - A promise made by Germany in 1916 to restrict submarine attacks on non-military ships, temporarily easing tensions with the U.S. during World War I.

Propaganda - Information and media campaigns used to influence public opinion, particularly during World War I, to promote patriotism and support for the war effort.

Zimmerman Telegram - A secret message from Germany to Mexico proposing an alliance against the U.S., intercepted by British intelligence and helping to draw the U.S. into World War I.

Russian Revolution - The 1917 overthrow of the Russian monarchy and establishment of a Bolshevik government, which led to Russia’s withdrawal from World War I.

American Expeditionary Force (AEF) - The U.S. military forces sent to Europe during World War I, commanded by General John J. Pershing, playing a key role in Allied victories.

Western Front - The main theater of combat during World War I, stretching through France and Belgium, marked by trench warfare and massive casualties.

“Peace without victory” - Woodrow Wilson’s vision for a post-war settlement that avoided punishing the defeated nations, emphasizing self-determination and lasting peace.

Fourteen Points - Woodrow Wilson’s post-World War I plan for peace, emphasizing self-determination, freedom of the seas, free trade, disarmament, and the establishment of the League of Nations.

Big Four - The main leaders at the Versailles Peace Conference: Woodrow Wilson (U.S.), David Lloyd George (Britain), Georges Clemenceau (France), and Vittorio Orlando (Italy).

Treaty of Versailles - The 1919 treaty that ended World War I, imposing harsh reparations and territorial losses on Germany, and establishing the League of Nations.

League of Nations - An international organization proposed in Wilson’s Fourteen Points to promote peace and cooperation, though the U.S. did not join due to Senate opposition.

Henry Cabot Lodge - A U.S. Senator who led opposition to the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations, advocating for isolationist policies.

Food Administration - A government agency led by Herbert Hoover during World War I to manage food production, reduce waste, and encourage conservation for the war effort.

National War Labor Board - A government body established during World War I to mediate labor disputes and prevent strikes, ensuring steady production for the war effort.

Selective Service Act - A 1917 law requiring men to register for the draft, enabling the U.S. to build a large army for World War I.

Committee of Public Information - A government agency led by George Creel to promote support for World War I through propaganda, including posters, speeches, and films.

Espionage Act 1917 - A law criminalizing interference with military operations, recruitment, and support for enemies during wartime, often used to suppress dissent.

Sedition Act 1918 - An extension of the Espionage Act that made it illegal to speak against the government, the Constitution, or the war effort during World War I.

Schenck v. U.S. - A 1919 Supreme Court case that upheld the Espionage Act, establishing the "clear and present danger" test for limiting free speech during wartime.

Great Migration - The mass movement of African Americans from the rural South to northern cities during and after World War I, seeking economic opportunities and escaping racial violence.

Red Scare - A period of intense fear of communism and radicalism in the U.S. after World War I, leading to government crackdowns on suspected subversives.

Xenophobia - Intense fear or dislike of foreigners, which fueled restrictive immigration laws and nativist attitudes in the early 20th century.

Palmer Raids - A series of government actions during the Red Scare, led by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, targeting suspected radicals and anarchists, often violating civil liberties.

Strikes of 1919 - A wave of labor strikes across the U.S. after World War I, driven by inflation, wage disputes, and poor working conditions, often met with hostility.

Race riots - Violent clashes between white and Black communities in U.S. cities during and after World War I, fueled by racial tensions and competition for jobs and housing.