Midterm Terms

Seeing a World (1/9)

Mercator Projection: the standard map projection for navigation due to its property of representing rhumb lines as straight lines. When applied to world maps, the Mercator projection inflates the size of lands the further they are from the equator. Therefore, landmasses such as Greenland and Antarctica appear far larger than they actually are relative to landmasses near the equator.

Hobo-Dyer: a normal cylindrical equal-area projection, with standard parallels (there is no north-south or east-west distortion) at 37.5° north and south of the equator….with its equal-area presentation, is intended to present a different perspective compared with more common non-equal area, north-up maps

Peters: cylindrical projection with standard parallels at 45 degrees. It distorts shapes, stretching them around the equator and squishing them toward the poles. It gives more prominence to equatorial countries than standard map projections.

Universal meridian: Greenwich, the area of ) degrees longitude

Greenwich: An area in England that is 0 degrees longitude

Equator:

World Systems Before 1450 (1/14)

Contingent: contingencies are the reasons why things are the way they are

Ex: England not as affected by the Black Plague compared to other European countries because they weren’t a part of the silk road. This is an example of an economic/geographic ontingency.

World-system: various regions all together comprising a world-system. Crossing continents and countries, which are integrated and structured, and more than the sum of its parts.

Patterns of exchange and interactions that crosses continents which are regular, fixed, and predictable.

Afro-Eurasia: The western half of the world, connected in a world system.

Hegemony: dominance or leadership of one entity over others, often in a political, social, or economic context. The influence exerted by a dominant country, organization, or social group over others, shaping norms, values, and policies

Language:

currency / money, credit

Black Death

Andre Gunder Frank

Matteo Ricci

Brahmin, Ganges

Muhammad, Mecca

Chingis Khan, Pax Mongolica

“pandemic of prosperity”

Cheng Ho (Zheng He)

Janet Abu-Lughod

Africa and America before 1500 (1/14)

Christendom

state

city

syncretism

hunting and gathering

Luxury vs substance goods

Separate sphere of exchange

Commodity

Profit

value

Cortez

Latifundia

Reconquista

On document but not in lecture:

sacrifice

essentialism

tlatoan

calpulli

mayeques

pipiltin

macehualtin

pochteca

Teotihuacan

Tenochtitlán

Itzcóatle 1426-1440

Moctezuma I 1440-1468

Ahuitzotle 1486-1502

polygyny

tribute goods

restricted sphere of exchange

money

Inter-regional trade before 1500 (1/16)

luxury goods vs. subsistence goods

profit

commodity

value

separate sphere of exchange

New World Encounters (1/16)

Indies term used by Europeans, particularly Christopher Columbus, to describe the lands of the Americas, mistakenly believing he had reached Asia

Conquistadors Spanish soldiers and explorers, such as Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, who led military expeditions to conquer indigenous civilizations like the Aztecs and Incas in the 16th century, often using violence, alliances, and deception.

ritualized speech Formal and structured ways of communication in indigenous societies, often tied to diplomacy, religion, or ceremonies. European misunderstandings of these forms of speech sometimes led to misinterpretations and conflicts

Factories European trading posts established in the New World, similar to those in Africa and Asia

Quetzalcoatl feathered serpent deity in Aztec and Mesoamerican mythology, associated with creation, wisdom, and renewal. Some historical accounts suggest that the Aztecs initially mistook Hernán Cortés for Quetzalcoatl, though this is debated.

encomienda/encomiendera Spanish colonial system where the Spanish Crown granted land and the right to forced indigenous labor to settlers (encomenderos). This system was intended to "Christianize" indigenous people but resulted in severe exploitation and population decline

instrumental speech practical, persuasive, and often manipulative way of speaking used to achieve specific goals. In New World encounters, conquistadors often used instrumental speech in diplomacy, deception, and negotiations with indigenous leaders

bio-social phenomenon event shaped by both biological and social factors. In the New World, the introduction of European diseases, new crops, and animals reshaped societies, economies, and environments

the Great Dying A massive demographic collapse of indigenous populations in the Americas due to European diseases (smallpox, measles, influenza), warfare, and forced labor. In some areas, populations declined by 90% or more within a century of contact

Culture The beliefs, practices, languages, and traditions that define a society. In New World encounters, European and indigenous cultures clashed, adapted, and blended in complex ways, leading to new hybrid cultures (e.g., mestizo and creole societies).

New World Encounters (1/21)

Indies term used by Europeans, particularly Christopher Columbus, to describe the lands of the Americas, mistakenly believing he had reached Asia

Conquistadors Spanish soldiers and explorers, such as Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, who led military expeditions to conquer indigenous civilizations like the Aztecs and Incas in the 16th century, often using violence, alliances, and deception.

ritualized speech Formal and structured ways of communication in indigenous societies, often tied to diplomacy, religion, or ceremonies. European misunderstandings of these forms of speech sometimes led to misinterpretations and conflicts

Factories European trading posts established in the New World, similar to those in Africa and Asia

Quetzalcoatl feathered serpent deity in Aztec and Mesoamerican mythology, associated with creation, wisdom, and renewal. Some historical accounts suggest that the Aztecs initially mistook Hernán Cortés for Quetzalcoatl, though this is debated.

encomienda/encomiendera Spanish colonial system where the Spanish Crown granted land and the right to forced indigenous labor to settlers (encomenderos). This system was intended to "Christianize" indigenous people but resulted in severe exploitation and population decline

instrumental speech practical, persuasive, and often manipulative way of speaking used to achieve specific goals. In New World encounters, conquistadors often used instrumental speech in diplomacy, deception, and negotiations with indigenous leaders

bio-social phenomenon event shaped by both biological and social factors. In the New World, the introduction of European diseases, new crops, and animals reshaped societies, economies, and environments

the Great Dying A massive demographic collapse of indigenous populations in the Americas due to European diseases (smallpox, measles, influenza), warfare, and forced labor. In some areas, populations declined by 90% or more within a century of contact

Culture The beliefs, practices, languages, and traditions that define a society. In New World encounters, European and indigenous cultures clashed, adapted, and blended in complex ways, leading to new hybrid cultures (e.g., mestizo and creole societies).

Encounters & Environments: Indian Ocean Trade and the Crossing of Cultures

Malacca strategic port city in present-day Malaysia that became a crucial hub in the Indian Ocean trade network; linked trade between China, India, the Middle East, and Europe

Factory (16th and 17th century sense) European trading post or commercial hub established along key trade routes, often fortified and run by merchant companies like the Portuguese Estado da Índia or the Dutch VOC. These factories were not just warehouses but also centers of political and military control

Moluccas Spice Islands (in present-day Indonesia), the Moluccas were highly valued for their production of cloves, nutmeg, and mace

Dutch East Indies Company (VOC) monopolized the spice trade in the Indian Ocean, particularly in the Moluccas, and used military force to dominate commerce and local rulers.

Vasco de Gama Portuguese explorer who was the first European to reach India by sea in 1498. His voyage around the Cape of Good Hope opened the Indian Ocean to direct European trade, leading to Portuguese dominance in the region

Matteo Ricci Jesuit missionary who traveled to China in the late 16th century. He played a key role in cultural exchange between Europe and East Asia, introducing Western science and Christianity while adopting Chinese customs to gain acceptance at the Ming court

Changes in Land: Americans, Colonists, and Ecology in “New England”

Metropole The imperial center, or the ruling country, in relation to its colonies. In this case, England served as the metropole

Ideology system of beliefs that shapes how societies understand and justify their actions. In colonial New England, ideologies about land, property, and civilization influenced how settlers viewed their expansion and interactions with indigenous peoples

Ideology of domination justifies one group’s control over another. In New England, colonists promoted the idea that English agricultural practices and land ownership were superior to indigenous ways of life

Usufruct rights system of land use in which people have the right to use resources (such as hunting, fishing, or farming) without outright ownership

Ownership rights European concept of exclusive, individual property ownership, where land could be bought, sold, and fenced off

objectified reduce something or someone to a mere object or resource. Colonists often objectified the land—viewing it as a commodity for profit—rather than recognizing it as part of a balanced ecosystem, as many indigenous groups did

Money Colonists introduced European currency and credit systems, which altered indigenous economies by shifting trade away from traditional barter systems like wampum

Kennebec Colonists introduced European currency and credit systems, which altered indigenous economies by shifting trade away from traditional barter systems like wampum

Wampum Beads made from shells, traditionally used by indigenous peoples in New England for ceremonial, diplomatic, and economic purposes. Europeans co-opted wampum as a form of currency in the fur trade, altering its role and increasing demand for its production

Sachem leader or chief among indigenous tribes in New England, responsible for diplomacy, land agreements, and governance. Colonists often misunderstood the role of sachems, sometimes assuming they had the European-style authority to "sell" land, leading to disputes over ownership

Making Europe UK Abroad/Divided at Home

Absolutism system of government in which a monarch holds complete and centralized power, often justified by divine right.

Bourgeoisie merchants, financiers, and professionals, who gained economic power through trade and industry

Gentry landowning class below the nobility, which gained political influence in England, particularly in the House of Commons

Parliament England’s representative governing body, which grew in power throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. It clashed with monarchs like Charles I, leading to the English Civil War and ultimately shaping constitutional monarchy

Common lands Shared lands used by peasants for grazing and farming. The enclosure movement, which privatized these lands, displaced many rural workers

Enclosure fencing off common lands for private use, which favored wealthy landowners while displacing peasants. This contributed to the growth of a "free" labor force that could be employed in industry and colonial ventures.

“Free workers” Displaced peasants and former serfs who were technically free but had little choice but to work for wages under harsh conditions

Puritanism Protestant movement that sought to "purify" the Church of England of Catholic influences

Nationalism justify England’s overseas empire while also fueling internal divisions over governance and religion

Henry VIII King of England (1509–1547) who broke from the Catholic Church and established the Church of England, increasing royal power

Elizabeth I Queen of England (1558–1603) who strengthened England’s navy, encouraged overseas expansion, and defeated the Spanish Armada

Charles I conflicts led to the English Civil War, his eventual execution, and the temporary abolition of the monarchy under Oliver Cromwell

Richard Hakluyt encouraged English settlement in North America, including the Virginia colony

Thomas Hobbes shaped by the English Civil War and supported the idea of a powerful state, though not necessarily monarchy

Making Europe UK Abroad/Divided at Home

Absolutism system of government in which a monarch holds complete and centralized power, often justified by divine right.

Bourgeoisie merchants, financiers, and professionals, who gained economic power through trade and industry

Gentry landowning class below the nobility, which gained political influence in England, particularly in the House of Commons

Parliament England’s representative governing body, which grew in power throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. It clashed with monarchs like Charles I, leading to the English Civil War and ultimately shaping constitutional monarchy

Common lands Shared lands used by peasants for grazing and farming. The enclosure movement, which privatized these lands, displaced many rural workers

Enclosure fencing off common lands for private use, which favored wealthy landowners while displacing peasants. This contributed to the growth of a "free" labor force that could be employed in industry and colonial ventures.

“Free workers” Displaced peasants and former serfs who were technically free but had little choice but to work for wages under harsh conditions

Puritanism Protestant movement that sought to "purify" the Church of England of Catholic influences

Nationalism justify England’s overseas empire while also fueling internal divisions over governance and religion

Henry VIII King of England (1509–1547) who broke from the Catholic Church and established the Church of England, increasing royal power

Elizabeth I Queen of England (1558–1603) who strengthened England’s navy, encouraged overseas expansion, and defeated the Spanish Armada

Charles I conflicts led to the English Civil War, his eventual execution, and the temporary abolition of the monarchy under Oliver Cromwell

Richard Hakluyt encouraged English settlement in North America, including the Virginia colony

Thomas Hobbes shaped by the English Civil War and supported the idea of a powerful state, though not necessarily monarchy

Inventing Race and Racism

Constructed Construction of racial hierarchies; racial ‘science’

Raced Slavery/Capitalist slavery “Raced slavery"-slavery was based on racial identity, enslavement of Africans. "Capitalist slavery" economic system that fueled capitalist expansion

Teleological reasoning used to justify racial hierarchies as "natural" or "inevitable" rather than contingent on human decisions.

Colonial space Spaces controlled by Europeans in the Americas, shaped power

Unfree labor broad term that includes enslaved labor, indentured servitude, and other forms of coerced work

Indentured laborers Workers, often European, who signed contracts to work for a set period (typically 4-7 years) in exchange for passage to the New World, food, and shelter. Unlike enslaved people, they were eventually freed but still contributed to plantation economies.

White racism system that justified European superiority and African inferiority

Plantation of the Americas Large-scale agricultural estates in the New World where enslaved Africans were forced to cultivate cash crops

Resistance defiance by enslaved people against their oppression

Maroon societies Communities formed by escaped enslaved people, often in remote areas like swamps or mountains, where they created independent societies that resisted colonial rule

Coerced accommodation enslaved people and oppressed groups complied with some demands of their oppressors while subtly resisting

Class solidarity The idea that different oppressed groups—such as enslaved Africans, indentured servants, and poor whites—could unite against elite planters

Co-optation used by colonial elites to maintain power by granting limited privileges to certain groups (e.g., poor whites) to prevent unified resistance against the ruling class.

Equality "equality" in political philosophy, it was largely reserved for white men

Liberty contradiction between Enlightenment ideals and the realities of colonial slavery

Objectification dehumanizing enslaved Africans by treating them as property or commodities

Missionary position reflects the religious and ideological justifications for European dominance, where Christian missionaries sought to "civilize" and convert enslaved and indigenous people, often reinforcing colonial control; sex used for control

Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) rebellion led elites to strengthen racial divisions, granting more rights to poor whites while tightening restrictions on Black people to prevent future alliances

Polygyny marriage system in which a man has multiple wives

Atlantic Slave Trade, New World Plantations, and Paradoxes of Freedom

Constructed Construction of racial hierarchies; racial ‘science’

Raced Slavery/Capitalist slavery “Raced slavery"-slavery was based on racial identity, enslavement of Africans. "Capitalist slavery" economic system that fueled capitalist expansion

Teleological reasoning used to justify racial hierarchies as "natural" or "inevitable" rather than contingent on human decisions.

Colonial space Spaces controlled by Europeans in the Americas, shaped power

Unfree labor broad term that includes enslaved labor, indentured servitude, and other forms of coerced work

Indentured laborers Workers, often European, who signed contracts to work for a set period (typically 4-7 years) in exchange for passage to the New World, food, and shelter. Unlike enslaved people, they were eventually freed but still contributed to plantation economies.

White racism system that justified European superiority and African inferiority

Plantation of the Americas Large-scale agricultural estates in the New World where enslaved Africans were forced to cultivate cash crops

Resistance defiance by enslaved people against their oppression

Maroon societies Communities formed by escaped enslaved people, often in remote areas like swamps or mountains, where they created independent societies that resisted colonial rule

Coerced accommodation enslaved people and oppressed groups complied with some demands of their oppressors while subtly resisting

Class solidarity The idea that different oppressed groups—such as enslaved Africans, indentured servants, and poor whites—could unite against elite planters

Co-optation used by colonial elites to maintain power by granting limited privileges to certain groups (e.g., poor whites) to prevent unified resistance against the ruling class.

Equality "equality" in political philosophy, it was largely reserved for white men

Liberty contradiction between Enlightenment ideals and the realities of colonial slavery

Objectification dehumanizing enslaved Africans by treating them as property or commodities

Missionary position reflects the religious and ideological justifications for European dominance, where Christian missionaries sought to "civilize" and convert enslaved and indigenous people, often reinforcing colonial control; sex used for control

Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) rebellion led elites to strengthen racial divisions, granting more rights to poor whites while tightening restrictions on Black people to prevent future alliances

Polygyny marriage system in which a man has multiple wives

Science as a Revolution

Geocentric vs. heliocentric The geocentric model (supported by Aristotle and Ptolemy) places Earth at the center of the universe, while the heliocentric model (proposed by Copernicus and refined by Kepler and Galileo) positions the Sun at the center with planets orbiting it

Internist vs. externalist The internist approach sees scientific progress as driven by internal ideas and methods, while the externalist approach considers external social, political, and cultural influences

Apollo/Luna Apollo was NASA’s program that landed humans on the Moon, while Luna was the Soviet robotic mission program that first reached the Moon

Aristotle An ancient Greek philosopher who supported the geocentric model and believed in a universe of perfect celestial spheres

Ptolemy Greco-Roman astronomer who refined the geocentric model using epicycles to explain planetary motion

Nasr al-Din al-Tusi A Persian astronomer whose Tusi Couple model influenced later heliocentric theories

Nicolas Copernicus A Polish astronomer who proposed the heliocentric model

Johannes Kepler A German astronomer who developed three laws of planetary motion

Galileo Galielei Italian astronomer who used a telescope to provide empirical evidence for the heliocentric model

Isaac Newton An English scientist who formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, providing the foundation for modern physics

Global Revolutions? II (2/13)

Covenant Chain A series of alliances between British colonies and Indigenous nations, indirectly linked to European colonial policies that shaped France’s economy before the revolution

Treating A term referring to diplomatic negotiations, relevant to discussions during the Estates-General and revolutionary France’s dealings with other nations

Regressive taxes A tax system where the poor pay more than the rich, as seen in pre-revolutionary France, where the Third Estate bore the financial burden while the nobility and clergy were largely exempt.

Mercantilism An economic system where the government controls trade to increase national wealth, which in France contributed to economic inequality and dissatisfaction before the revolution

Nobel revolt 1787-1789 A series of protests by the nobility against King Louis XVI’s financial reforms, ultimately leading to the crisis that sparked the French Revolution.

National Assembly A revolutionary body formed by the Third Estate in 1789 to draft a constitution and challenge the monarchy’s authority.

Great Fear A wave of peasant uprisings in 1789, fueled by rumors of noble conspiracies, which led to the abolition of feudal privilege

Mulatto A term for people of mixed African and European ancestry, significant during the Haitian Revolution, when free people of color demanded equal rights.

Active vs. Passive Citizen Active, male, +25, white, free; passive all else, definition changes

Legal Status In both the French and Haitian Revolutions, legal status determined rights, with inequalities between social classes in France and between whites, free people of color, and the enslaved in Saint-Domingue

Liberty-equality-fraternity The slogan of the French Revolution, which inspired revolutionary movements in Saint-Domingue, disliked by white slave owners

Free people of color A group in Saint-Domingue who were often wealthy and educated, fought for equal rights with whites, and played a key role in the Haitian Revolution

Colonized mind Internalized colonization, sought assimilation into white society rather than full liberation for all Black people

Exclusif A strict French colonial trade policy that forced colonies like Saint-Domingue to trade only with France

Estates-General A French assembly comprised of the three estates, low class, nobles, and clergy

Julien Rainmond A wealthy free man of color from Saint-Domingue who lobbied in France for equal rights for free Black people

Societe des Amis des Noirs French abolitionist group that advocated for the end of slavery

Roberspierre A radical leader of the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror, who opposed slavery and helped push for its abolition in 1794

Jean-Jacques Dessalines key leader in the Haitian Revolution, who took over after Toussaint Louverture’s capture

Touissant L’Ouverture former enslaved man who became the primary leader of the Haitian Revolution,

Global Revolutions? II (2/18)

Covenant Chain A series of alliances between British colonies and Indigenous nations, indirectly linked to European colonial policies that shaped France’s economy before the revolution

Treating A term referring to diplomatic negotiations, relevant to discussions during the Estates-General and revolutionary France’s dealings with other nations

Regressive taxes A tax system where the poor pay more than the rich, as seen in pre-revolutionary France, where the Third Estate bore the financial burden while the nobility and clergy were largely exempt.

Mercantilism An economic system where the government controls trade to increase national wealth, which in France contributed to economic inequality and dissatisfaction before the revolution

Nobel revolt 1787-1789 A series of protests by the nobility against King Louis XVI’s financial reforms, ultimately leading to the crisis that sparked the French Revolution.

National Assembly A revolutionary body formed by the Third Estate in 1789 to draft a constitution and challenge the monarchy’s authority.

Great Fear A wave of peasant uprisings in 1789, fueled by rumors of noble conspiracies, which led to the abolition of feudal privilege

Mulatto A term for people of mixed African and European ancestry, significant during the Haitian Revolution, when free people of color demanded equal rights.

Active vs. Passive Citizen Active, male, +25, white, free; passive all else, definition changes

Legal Status In both the French and Haitian Revolutions, legal status determined rights, with inequalities between social classes in France and between whites, free people of color, and the enslaved in Saint-Domingue

Liberty-equality-fraternity The slogan of the French Revolution, which inspired revolutionary movements in Saint-Domingue, disliked by white slave owners

Free people of color A group in Saint-Domingue who were often wealthy and educated, fought for equal rights with whites, and played a key role in the Haitian Revolution

Colonized mind Internalized colonization, sought assimilation into white society rather than full liberation for all Black people

Exclusif A strict French colonial trade policy that forced colonies like Saint-Domingue to trade only with France

Estates-General A French assembly comprised of the three estates, low class, nobles, and clergy

Julien Rainmond A wealthy free man of color from Saint-Domingue who lobbied in France for equal rights for free Black people

Societe des Amis des Noirs French abolitionist group that advocated for the end of slavery

Roberspierre A radical leader of the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror, who opposed slavery and helped push for its abolition in 1794

Jean-Jacques Dessalines key leader in the Haitian Revolution, who took over after Toussaint Louverture’s capture

Touissant L’Ouverture former enslaved man who became the primary leader of the Haitian Revolution,