Subjective measures (rating scales, such as Likert scales)
Mixed methods - data collection may be a combination of qualitative and quantitative data
Differences between subjective and objective data
Types of Data (Detailed)
Qualitative Data
Definition: Descriptive information in the form of words.
Data Format: Written words
Data Display: Flow charts, taxonomy (showing classification or organization of information), modified Venn diagrams (displaying shared concepts), and summary tables.
Question Format: Open-ended questions that allow free-form answers.
Method of Collection: Interviews (structured or semi-structured), focus groups, open-ended surveys, and observation (naturalistic).
Analysis: Large amount of descriptive data is assessed for patterns and organized into categories. Categories are created by grouping collated descriptive information.
Strengths:
In-depth information can be collected as participants may have the opportunity to explain their responses.
There is flexibility in aspects of the methods used to collect the data (e.g., the inclusion or exclusion of interview questions, or the wording of interview questions).
Limitations:
Reduced generalizability of results due to information being gathered from a smaller sample size (compared to larger sample sizes typical of quantitative research).
Researchers require a deep understanding of the studied concept to interpret the data.
Example: Family, friends, and colleagues of Phineas Gage were interviewed and asked to describe his personality before and after his accident.
Quantitative Data
Definition: Information in the form of numbers that can be counted.
Data Format: Numerical
Data Display: Graphs and summary tables (e.g., frequency tables).
Question Format: Closed-ended questions that limit answers to set responses.
Method of Collection: Rating scales (e.g., Likert scales), observation (controlled), and using equipment in physiological measures (e.g., thermometer to measure body temperature).
Analysis:
Data is quantifiable (able to be counted) so can be statistically analyzed.
Data can determine a cause-and-effect relationship or correlation.
Generalizability of results can be assessed.
Numerical data is easier to replicate through repetition of the research allowing for reliability to be assessed.
Strengths:
Objectivity
Limitations:
Researchers need a strong knowledge of statistical analysis.
Large sample sizes are required for results to have high generalizability.
Example: The time taken for participants to report smoke in Latané and Darley's smoke-filled room study.
Methods of Data Collection (Qualitative)
Interviews
Can be administered to an individual or to a group of people at one time (focus group).
Structured Interview
Application: Set of pre-established questions is asked in real time face-to-face or over the phone.
Strengths: Many individuals, or focus groups, can be asked the same set of standardized questions, reducing differences between interviewers. Participants do not need to rely on their reading ability in order to participate.
Limitations: Interviewers are not able to ask participants to further explain their responses, thus limiting the richness of collected data. Analyzing data collected from interviews is complicated, so drawing general conclusions is difficult. Participants may feel less comfortable revealing sensitive information to the interviewer due to the face-to-face or over-the-phone format, thus limiting data that can be collected.
Semi-structured Interview
Application: Set of pre-established questions that can be asked, but participants can also be asked follow-up questions based on earlier responses. This sort of interview is suitable for a job interview.
Strengths: Extensive data can be collected, and the option for interviewers to ask participants to further explain their reasons leads to deeper understanding. Participants do not need to rely on their reading ability in order to participate.
Limitations: Analyzing data collected from interviews is complicated, so drawing general conclusions is difficult.
Open-ended Survey
Application: Participants are provided with questions on paper or online with space to respond in open-text format with as much detail as they like. Open-ended surveys are often used in exploratory studies of issues requiring deep insight.
Strengths: Detailed information (including attitudes and emotions) can be collected on complicated topics. Participants are not restricted by limited options.
Limitations: Participants must rely on their reading and writing ability to participate. Differences in the amount of detail provided by participants makes analyzing the collected data difficult.
How to Run a Focus Group
Develop a set of questions for participants to answer based on the aim of the research.
Gather a sample from the population of research interest using an appropriate sampling technique.
Provide an information letter and consent form for participants to complete. Participants under the age of eighteen require a legal guardian to provide informed consent on their behalf.
Facilitate a focus group with a manageable number of participants from the sample (numerous focus groups using different participants can be run). Ask follow-up questions based on participant responses to pre-established questions and record verbal discussions between participants and comments made to the facilitators using a recording device.
After participants have been debriefed, collate, then analyze the written and recorded data.
Changes in emotional stress, physical effort and consciousness can be recorded.
Measures changes in the electrical conductivity of the skin and can detect anxiety, guilt, fear or excitement. It can be used to help determine state of consciousness and to measure and reduce stress using biofeedback training.
Strengths:
Participants are less likely to affect the data collected (risk of participant bias is limited).
Measures can be recorded in real-time.
Limitations:
Exercise can easily cause changes to the measurement, which is a disadvantage if the state of consciousness, for example, is being identified.
Factors such as exercise or heat can affect the measurement.
Participants may feel anxious when having the measure taken and this can alter results.
Subjective Measures
Rating scale (e.g., Likert scale)
Rating scales require participants to rate concepts.
The Likert scale is a type of rating scale where participants indicate their strength of agreement to statements.
Application:
Rating scales can be used to measure attitudes.
Rating scales can be used to quantify abstract concepts, such as the level of pain someone is experiencing.
Strengths:
Data can be statistically analyzed.
Data collected from a large sample size can occur in a relatively short time (compared with conducting an interview).
Can be conducted remotely such as online or via mail.
Limitations:
Responses are limited to the options provided.
It does not allow participants to give reasons for their responses.
Participants must rely on their reading ability to participate.
Phrasing and order of statements can affect people's responses.
Examples of Rating Scales
Pain measurement scale (Figure 14.1) - can be used for children and adults. The patient can provide a number to represent their pain intensity, or they can point to the picture of the face that best visually matches how they are feeling.
Likert scale (Figure 14.2) - used to measure attitudes. Each question uses a five or seven-point scale, usually including a neutral option. Each point on the scale is allocated a numerical score used for determining whether an overall attitude is positive or negative, or to provide a score on a diagnostic test. Likert scales can be used to measure levels of agreement, importance or frequency.
Mixed Methods
Definition: Qualitative and quantitative data are collected from participants in the same study.
Example: Utilizing both interviews and rating scales in a study.
Application: Qualitative and quantitative data are collected from participants in the same study.
Strengths:
A greater understanding of the research problem can be provided than using either a qualitative or quantitative method alone.
Both qualitative and quantitative methods can be used to complement each other, for example, an interview can lead to the development of a checklist.
Limitations:
Greater expertise from researchers is required to collect and analyze data.
The time required to collect and analyze data is greater than in just qualitative or just quantitative methods.
Differences Between Subjective and Objective Data
Subjective data: data based on personal opinions and judgement.
Example: self-reported measures such as a checklist or Likert scale.
Objective data: data based on facts that can be supported through observation and measurements.
Example: physiological measures such as heart rate and breathing rate. Physiological measures are usually taken with a piece of equipment that measures physical activity in the body.