Period 7 Lecture

PERIOD 7: 1890-1945

Contextualizing Period 7

This period marks a significant transformation in America's role on the global stage, shifting from a long-standing policy of isolationism to increased involvement in international affairs, influenced by economic, military, and ideological factors.

Imperialism: Debates

The Roots of American Imperialism

Context

In 1890, the U.S. was relatively minor in global power dynamics, having followed a policy of detachment advocated by Washington and embodied by the Monroe Doctrine. However, within a decade, the nation rapidly transformed into an imperial republic with active interests in the Caribbean, Latin America, and the Pacific, driven by the need for economic expansion and strategic advantage. President McKinley acknowledged this swift change by stating, "in a few short months we have become a world power," indicating the rapid evolution of U.S. foreign policy.

Quest for New Markets and Raw Materials

American businesses were keen to find new markets due to local overproduction concerns, particularly in industries like steel and textiles. This economic imperative drove a vigilant search for new territories in Latin America, Asia, and the Pacific to secure resources and markets. The severe depression from 1893 to 1897 heightened political leaders' urgency to connect domestic economic growth with foreign trade, pushing forward an agenda of expansion.

Strategic Thinking Influenced by Alfred Thayer Mahan

Alfred Thayer Mahan, a naval officer and historian, advocated for a powerful navy and control of maritime routes, asserting that sea power was pivotal for national success. His theories emphasized the necessity of a strong naval presence, which shaped U.S. naval strategy, particularly during Theodore Roosevelt's presidency, and influenced America's military engagements abroad.

Ideology of Expansion: Social Darwinism

Expansionists applied Darwin's principles to international relations, viewing American dominance as a natural outcome in the competition among nations. Ideologies justified the necessity for America to secure its standing among global powers through imperialist actions, based on concepts like the "White Man's Burden," which portrayed it as a moral obligation to 'civilize' other nations.

Making Comparisons: Manifest Destiny and Imperialism

Continuities

Both ideologies involved territorial expansion and military conflict to acquire valuable resources, illustrating a continuation of American expansionism.

Changes

However, the justification for expansion evolved significantly; previously viewed as a means of civilizing Native Americans, it now hinged on a 'civilizing mission' aimed at non-European nations. Additionally, the demographic contexts differed; imperialism involved densely populated regions which posed unique challenges unlike the sparsely populated lands during the era of Manifest Destiny, demanding new strategies and outcomes.

The Spanish-American War

The March to War

Cuban Rebellion

The Cuban rebellion against Spanish rule led to reports of severe atrocities under Spanish General Weyler. These events were sensationalized by yellow journalism, particularly by figures like Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst, which played a critical role in shaping American public opinion towards war.

The Sinking of the U.S.S. Maine

The explosion of the Navy's U.S.S. Maine in Havana harbour was attributed to Spain, further galvanizing public opinion in favor of intervention and war, signaling a pivotal moment in U.S. foreign policy history.

Consequences of War

The war ended with the U.S. gaining multiple territories, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, which substantially altered the nation's status as a global power. The Treaty of Paris in 1898 solidified this newfound status and sparked an intense domestic debate over the morality and efficacy of imperialism, exposing deep divisions in American society regarding the future direction of U.S. foreign affairs.

American Involvement in the Philippines

The Debate Over the Philippines

The annexation of the Philippines ignited fierce opposition domestically, with critics highlighting the ideological inconsistency of liberating Cuba while denying independence to the Philippines. Expansionists contended that acquisition provided strategic advantages in trade and a foothold in Asia’s burgeoning markets.

Filipinos, led by revolutionary leader Emilio Aguinaldo, resisted U.S. control, signifying the onset of a protracted conflict reflective of later guerrilla warfare, which raised significant ethical questions about American imperial policy.

America’s Emerging Influence and Power

The Open Door Policy in China

Strategic Interests

American businesses sought to access China’s vast markets and endeavored to protect their trading rights amid European imperialist encroachments. This culminated in the Open Door Policy, which aimed to ensure equal trading rights for all nations in China, although it primarily served U.S. economic interests.

The Panama Canal

Construction of the Panama Canal

The construction of the Panama Canal exemplified a strategic priority for the U.S., enhancing naval mobility and facilitating global trade between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Roosevelt's support for a Panamanian revolt against Colombia underscored America’s assertive foreign policy approach driven by national interests and geopolitical maneuvering.

The Roosevelt Corollary

This policy extended the Monroe Doctrine by asserting the U.S. right to intervene in Latin American countries to stabilize their economic affairs and prevent European intervention. This reflection characterized the U.S. as a self-appointed regional police power, blending imperial aspirations with the complexities of hemispheric relations.

Women and the Progressive Era

The Progressive Spirit

The transition from Populism to Progressivism was marked by renewed reform efforts focused on addressing urban and industrial challenges. This included a heightened emphasis on government intervention to remedy societal problems, a significant shift in public policy philosophy.

Reformers, known as muckrakers, like Ida Tarbell and Upton Sinclair, exposed corruption and injustices, thereby shaping public opinion and pushing for comprehensive social and political reforms during this era.

The New Deal

Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal policies arose as a response to the Great Depression, implementing initiatives like the Civilian Conservation Corps, Public Works Administration, and the Social Security Act. The New Deal fundamentally shifted the government’s role in American life, committing it to protect the welfare of citizens and stabilize the economy through active intervention.

World War II: Military Strategies and Mobilization

Victory in Europe

The Allies’ decision to confront Germany first significantly shaped their military strategy and led to major joint operations, including the D-Day invasion, which marked a turning point in the European theater. The rapid mobilization of American resources and the emphasis on industrial capacity were crucial in supporting the war effort.

The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb

Controversy surrounded the decision to use atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, bringing attention to the moral dilemmas faced by leaders in wartime decision-making. The bombings ultimately precipitated the end of World War II, marking the beginning of the Cold War and creating enduring nuclear anxieties among world powers.

Postwar Diplomacy

The postwar period featured significant developments, including the formation of the United Nations and the Nuremberg Trials. These events illustrated a shift towards global governance and accountability, setting the stage for the eventual ideological confrontation between capitalism and communism that defined the Cold War era, impacting global politics for decades to come.