Scientific Method Sociology
Empirical Evidence
Empirical Evidence: evidence that comes from direct experience, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation.
Meta-Analysis
Meta-Analysis: a technique in which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together.
Hypothesis
Hypothesis: a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables.
Scientific Method
Scientific Method: an established scholarly research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions.
The Scientific Method: Step-by-Step
Step One: ASK A QUESTION
Question should be narrow enough to study within a specific environment, such as a finite time frame or a location.
Question should be broad enough to have value for people outside of the study participants, or (even better) can inform people outside the immediate environments.
Step Two: RESEARCH EXISTING SOURCES
Literature Review: a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research.
Step Three: FORMULATE A HYPOTHESIS
A Hypothesis is a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables.
Independent Variables: variables that cause changes in dependent variables.
Dependent Variables: variables changed by other variables.
Step Four: DESIGN AND CONDUCT A STUDY
Operational definition: when forming basic research questions, sociologists define the concept in terms of concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it.
The operational definition identifies an observable condition of the concept.
Reliability: how likely research results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced.
Validity: how well the study measures what it was designed to measure.
Step Five: DRAW CONCLUSIONS
Tabulate and analyze the results in an organized fashion that will make sense to others who want to either learn about, evaluate, repeat, or build on the experiment/study.
Decide if the research supports or does not support the hypothesis.
If it does not support it, consider why:
Is the hypothesis wrong?
Was something wrong with the study?
Did something occur that you didn’t account for?
Step Six: REPORT RESULTS
Tabulate and analyze the results in an organized fashion that will make sense to others who want to either learn about, evaluate, repeat, or build on the experiment/study.
Interpretive Framework
Interpretive Framework: a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction.
It seeks to understand social worlds from the point of view of participants.
This approach is not based on hypothesis testing.
Research Methods
Primary Source Collection: the researchers obtaining data directly, such as through surveys, interviews, observations, and so on.
Secondary Data Analysis: using data collected by others but applying new interpretations.
Secondary Data Analysis
Nonreactive Research: using secondary data, does not include direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people’s behaviors.
Content Analysis: applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as it relates to the study at hand.
Primary Data Collection
Surveys: collect data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire.
Population: a defined group serving as the subject of a study.
Samples: small, manageable number of subjects that represent the population.
Random Sample: study’s participants being randomly selected to serve as a representation of a larger population.
Quantitative Data: represents research collected in numerical form that can be counted.
Qualitative Data: comprises information that is subjective and often based on what is seen in a natural setting.
Interview: a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject.
ARTISTS OR THEIR FANS AS SUBJECTS
Consider: What would you want to study about Lady Gaga or Beyoncé? What would you want to study about their fans?
Field Research
Field Research: gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey.
Primary Data: data collected directly from firsthand experience.
Correlation: when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation.
FIELD RESEARCH (continued)
Sociological researchers travel across countries and cultures to interact with and observe subjects in their natural environments.
(Photo references indicate fieldwork in various settings.)
Participant Observation
Participant Observation: a researcher immerses themselves in a group or social setting to make observations from an “insider” perspective.
Example: studying how restaurant diners treat waiters by becoming a waiter for the study.
The Making of Middletown: A Study in Modern U.S. Culture
A classroom in Muncie, Indiana, in 1917, five years before John and Helen Lynd began researching this “typical” U.S. community.
Field Research Environments
Field research happens in “real” locations. It asks what type of environment workspaces foster; what a sociologist might discover after blending in.
Ethnography
Ethnography: observing a complete social setting and all that it entails.
Institutional Ethnography: an extension of basic ethnographic research principles that focuses intentionally on everyday concrete social relationships.
SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS
Secondary Data Analysis (revisited): using data collected by others but applying new interpretations.
Nonreactive Research (revisited): using secondary data, does not include direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people’s behaviors.
Content Analysis (revisited): applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as it relates to the study at hand.
Figure 2.10: Heussenstamm Study (Racial Profiling Context)
Sociologist Frances Heussenstamm conducted an experiment to explore the correlation between traffic stops and race-based bumper stickers. This issue of racial profiling remains important and impactful.
Max Weber and Value Neutrality
Max Weber: Personal values should not shape the design or interpretation.
Value Neutrality: The obligation to remain impartial while collecting, analyzing, and reporting results.
ASA Code of Ethics
1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
2. Respect subjects’ rights to privacy and dignity
3. Protect subjects from personal harm
4. Preserve confidentiality
5. Seek informed consent
6. Acknowledge collaboration and assistance
7. Disclose sources of financial support
Notable Ethical Controversies and Case Studies
The Tuskegee Experiment: a study including 600 African American men, with 399 diagnosed with syphilis, who were never informed of their diagnosis. Penicillin was distributed in the 1940s as the cure for the disease, but the men were not given the treatment because the objective of the study was to see how untreated syphilis would affect the African American male. The study lasted 40 ext{ years}, despite being told it would last 6 ext{ months}. Dozens of the men died directly of syphilis, dozens also infected their significant others, and at least 19 children were born with congenital syphilis.
Henrietta Lacks: In 1951, Henrietta Lacks was diagnosed with cervical cancer. Her cells reproduced and survived long enough for extensive study, becoming known as “immortal” cells because they could be divided repeatedly without dying. These HeLa cells were mass produced and used worldwide for polio vaccine development, AIDS research, DNA research, gene mapping, and many other studies, without informing Lacks or her family and without consent or formal acknowledgment.
Stanford Prison Experiment and Milgram Experiment: Famous ethical lapses where participants were exposed to harm or undue distress. Stanford Prison Experiment involved students assigned as inmates and guards; some were coached or not acting authentically. Milgram Experiment involved participants believing they were administering painful shocks to others under authority pressure, resulting in extreme distress for some subjects.
OpenStax note: These examples and content are part of an ancillary OpenStax resource, © Rice University, under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified with attribution and noting changes.
References to Figures and Illustrations
Figure 2.1: Full Moon crime rate misconception; scientific research does not support a link between full moon and crime rates.
Figure 2.2: The Scientific Method diagram showing the sequence: Ask a Question → Research Existing Sources → Formulate a Hypothesis → Design and Conduct a Study → Draw Conclusions → Report Results.
Figure 2.8: Field research environment illustration.
Figure 2.10: Heussenstamm study image.
Polling and Real-World Limitations (EXAMPLE)
Political polls can be methodologically precise, yet real-world results may still be inaccurate.
Pew Research Center identified three main reasons for errors in 2016 and 2020 presidential polls: ext{nonresponse bias} (difficulty reaching all types of voters), people who did not want to reveal their choice, and overreporting voting intentions compared to actual voting behavior.
Practical and Philosophical Implications
The tension between value neutrality and social relevance:
Researchers must balance objectivity with ethical obligations to protect subjects and communities.
Studies can inform policy and public understanding, but must avoid harming participants or misrepresenting groups.
Practical Applications and Relevance
Understanding research methods helps evaluate the quality of published findings in news, policy, and academic work.
Awareness of ethical controversies (Tuskegee, HeLa, Stanford/Milgram) informs current best practices and the ASA Code of Ethics.
Familiarity with data types (quantitative vs qualitative) and data sources (primary vs secondary) guides study design and interpretation.