JFK, Vietnam, and the Cold War

French Indochina (1885-1954)

Option 15: John Fitzgerald Kennedy Content Focus

  • Students investigate changing interpretations of John Fitzgerald Kennedy.

  • Students examine historians and approaches to history (including recent historiography) that have contributed to historical debate in the areas of:

    • The role in the Indochina conflict

    • The role in the Cuban missile crisis and/or dealings with Khrushchev

    • Camelot – man and myth

Focus for Today

  • To understand the historical context of the Conflict in Indochina.

  • To understand the historical debates surrounding JFK and his administration.

What are the Debates?

  • What role did the Kennedy Administration play in the coup and assassination of Diem in 1963?

  • Escalation or Staged Withdrawal?

  • Was Kennedy planning to withdraw American troops from Vietnam or was he planning to increase US involvement?

The Arrival of the French

  1. First Missionaries in 16th, 17th Century Portuguese, French

  2. France – direct involvement in early 19th century

  3. Conquest of Cochin China, 1862

  4. Tonkin and Annam 1884-1885

Impact of the French

  1. Coercive power

  2. Export-oriented economy (Rubber, Tobacco, Coffee.)

  3. Transformation of Vietnamese society, cash economy, divide between colonial urban elite and rural villages

  4. Political repression

  5. Imposition of Christianity upon largely Buddhist majority

Vietnamese Nationalism

  • Inspired by Japanese victory in Russo- Japanese war; looked to Japan first, then China after 1911 Revolution

  • Sought modernization of Vietnam, independence and a republic

World War 1

  1. 50,000 Vietnamese troops and 50,000 Vietnamese workers in Europe – 30,000 killed in the war

  2. Heavier taxes produced sporadic revolts in Vietnam

  3. Versailles conference – demands for self- determination swept across the colonised world.

Enter Ho Chi Minh

  1. Born Nguyen Tat Thahn, 1890, Nghe An province

  2. Son of Imperial office holder

  3. Left Vietnam in 1912

  4. Agitated for independence at Versailles

  5. Joined French Communist party in 1920 – Lenin’s Essay on Imperialism – the Highest Stage of capitalism

  6. Formed Indochinese Communist Party – 1930 – belief in revolutionary potential of the peasantry

Between the Wars

  1. Economic protectionism heightened importance of colonial territories – trade barriers made Indochina more significant

  2. Increasing Nationalist activity – formation of the VNQDD – Vietnamese Nationalist Party – modeled on Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) of China

  3. VNQDD Yen Bay revolt in 1930 – leadership destroyed; remnants flee to China

  4. Destruction of more moderate nationalist groups – communists survived through disciplined organization and secrecy

World War II and French Indochina

  1. French in Indochina stayed loyal to Vichy, the collaborationist government

  2. Tripartite Pact of Sept. 1940 ties Germany, Japan, and Italy – Japan receives landing rights in Indochina

  3. Japanese occupy Indochina – July 1941 – Roosevelt imposes sanctions

  4. Pearl Harbor attack – December 1941

World War 2

  1. Japanese domination

  2. Ho creates the Viet Minh as umbrella nationalist organization

  3. Famine – 1944 and 1945

  4. Japanese Coup March 1945

  5. OSS (Office of Strategic Services) works with Viet Minh to save US pilots

  6. August Revolution – Ho proclaims the DRV (Democratic Republic of Vietnam) – appeals for American support

Outbreak of Franco-Viet Minh War (The 1st Indochina War.)

  • Continuing tensions

  • Ho goes to Paris August 1946 for negotiations

  • Outbreak of fighting Nov. 1946, shelling of Haiphong, Viet Minh pull out of Hanoi into Northern countryside

The Cold War Turns Hot, 1950

  1. Soviet A-bomb Sept. 1949, Fall of China Oct. 1949, McCarthyism Feb. 1950 (Wheeling West Virginia Speech) May 1950

  2. US decides to provide 1515 million to Bao Dai, May 1950 – connected to agreements in Europe to beef up NATO, eventually rearm Germany June 1950

  3. Outbreak of the Korean War

The Korean War - Events June 1950

  1. Invasion by the North Aug. 1950

  2. UN sanction – Pusan Perimeter August 1950

  3. Inchon landing Oct. 1950

  4. Advance North to the Yalu Nov. 1950

  5. Chinese Intervention Apr. 1951

  6. Stalemate, April 1951, firing of MacArthur 1951–1953

  7. Inconclusive fighting, peace talks Nov. 1952

  8. Election of Eisenhower July 1953

  9. Armistice

The Impact of Korea on Vietnam

  1. War seen as part of the same strategic theatre

  2. Increase to 133133 million in aid

  3. French position weakens in late 1950; defeat at Cao Bang – Chinese role in helping Vietnamese

  4. French General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, WWII hero, – some success in 1951; appealed for more American aid; created a Vietnamese National Army

Aiding the French

  • As a result, Vietnam became a pawn in Cold War politics.

  • To ensure French support in the Cold War, Truman agreed to aid France’s efforts to regain control over Vietnam.

  • After communist forces won the civil war in China in 1949, America increased its aid to the French in Vietnam.

    • Between 1950 and 1954, the United States contributed 2.62.6 billion to France’s war efforts.

    • Containing Ho Chi Minh’s communist Vietminh (an abbreviation of the League for the Independence of Vietnam) became a national priority.

Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy on Indochina Before the Senate, Washington, D.C., April 6, 1954

  • "In Indochina we have allied ourselves to the desperate effort of a French regime to hang on to the remnants of empire. There is no broad, general support of the native Vietnam Government among the people of that area."

The French Surrender

  • In 1954, however, the French lost their eight-year struggle to regain Vietnam.

  • The Vietminh trapped a large French garrison at Dien Bien Phu, a military base in northwest Vietnam, and laid siege to it for 55 days.

    • During the siege, which one Frenchman described as “hell in a very small place,” Viet Minh troops destroyed the French airstrip, cut French supply lines, and dug trenches to attack key French positions.

  • Finally, on May 7, 1954, after suffering some 15,000 casualties, the French surrendered.

The Battle of Dien Bien Phu - 1954

  • The end of French Colonial Rule in Vietnam

  • Directly led to the Geneva Conventions. The French withdrawal from Indochina.

  • Cold War Context: The partition laid the groundwork for escalating Cold War tensions in Southeast Asia and the emergence of US intervention in the region.

  • Significant Geo-Political shift in Southeast Asia.

The French Legacy

  1. A deeply divided people.

  2. Nationalist movements susceptible to ideology.

  3. A Buddhist South run by a Catholic Minority.

  4. Corruption.

  5. An economy which had been transformed from primary agriculture (rice) into cash agriculture. (Tea, coffee, rubber, tobacco)

France's War now becomes America's

Domino Theory

  • Eisenhower told a journalist that the fight in Vietnam involved more than the future of just one country…

  • "You have a row of dominoes set up, you knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one is the certainty that it will go over very quickly. So you could have a beginning of a disintegration that would have the most profound influences." —Dwight D. Eisenhower, April 7, 1954

Geneva Conference of 1954

  1. Division of Vietnam at 17th Parallel

  2. Elections in two years

  3. Movement of peoples North and South

  4. US takes “note” of the agreements, but is not a party to them

Ngo Dinh Diem vs. Ho Chi Minh

  • When it came time for the 1956 unification elections, American intelligence analysts predicted that Diem would lose to the more popular Ho Chi Minh.

  • Rather than risk losing, Diem refused to participate in the elections, a move made with the support of the U.S. government.

  • JFK, initially supported Diem in his attempt to ensure stability in the South.

The Vietcong

  • By 1957, a communist rebel group in the South, known as the National Liberation Front (NLF), had committed itself to undermining the Diem government and uniting Vietnam under a communist flag.

    • NLF guerrilla fighters, called Vietcong, launched an insurgency in which they assassinated government officials and destroyed roads and bridges.

    • Supplied by communists in North Vietnam, the Vietcong employed surprise hit-and-run tactics to weaken Diem’s hold on South Vietnam.

Lack of Support for Diem

  • Diem’s own policies also weakened his position in South Vietnam.

  • A devout Roman Catholic in an overwhelmingly Buddhist nation, Diem did little to build a broad political base.

    • Instead, he signed anti-Buddhist legislation and refused to enact significant land reforms.

  • His lack of popular support hurt him in the civil war against North Vietnam.

    • Only the support of the United States kept the unpopular leader in power.

From Eisenhower to JFK (Approach to Vietnam)

  • American foreign policy after World War II had been based on the goal of containing Communism and the assumptions of the so-called "domino theory”—that if one country fell to Communism, the surrounding countries would fall, like dominoes.

  • The Eisenhower administration was concerned that if Vietnam fell under Communist control, other Southeast Asian and Pacific nations, including even the Philippines, would fall one by one.

  • In response to that threat, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was formed in 1955 to prevent Communist expansion.

  • President Eisenhower sent some 700 military personnel as well military and economic aid to the government of South Vietnam.

  • This effort was foundering when John F. Kennedy became president.

Kennedy – Escalation of U.S. Troops in Vietnam

  • After his election in 1960, President John F. Kennedy took a more aggressive stand against the communists in Vietnam.

    • Beginning in 1961, he sent Special Forces troops to South Vietnam to advise the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) on more effective ways to fight the communist forces.

      • By 1963, more than 15,000 American military personnel were fighting in Vietnam.

1961 – Report to President Kennedy on South Vietnam by Dean Rusk & Robert McNamara

  • Authored by President Kennedy’s Secretary of State, Dean Rusk, and Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara, this report makes clear that U.S. policymakers believed the collapse of South Vietnam represented a grave threat to American and global security.

  • Furthermore, should the United States fail to act, its credibility would suffer. Allies would question the commitment of the United States to protect them, and the fall of South Vietnam would lead to neighboring nations also becoming communist – the domino theory.

  • Rusk and McNamara recommended taking all necessary steps to contain the spread of communism to South Vietnam, including, if necessary, the deployment of U.S. combat forces to fight the growing communist insurgency. This proposal showed the militarization of containment at work

Ngo Dinh Diem Continues to Struggle

  • Although U.S. military personnel fought bravely and achieved some success, Diem continued to alienate South Vietnamese citizens.

  • By late 1963, his regime was in shambles.

  • Buddhists protested his restrictive policies, occasionally by setting themselves on fire.

A Change in Leadership Was Necessary?

  • The Kennedy administration eventually concluded that South Vietnam needed new leadership.

    • Working behind the scenes, Americans plotted with anti-Diem generals to overthrow Diem’s government.

    • On November 1, 1963, Diem was removed from power; he was assassinated the following day.

Diem Coup and Assassination:

  • Catholic: He was a devout Catholic ruling over a predominantly Buddhist South Vietnam.

  • Political Repression: Diem's regime was marked by authoritarian rule, political repression, and a lack of democratic processes. He relied heavily on family members, especially his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu, who wielded significant power. This nepotism and concentration of power alienated many South Vietnamese, including those in the military and political elites.

  • Religious persecution of Buddhist Monks: Diem's administration, which was dominated by Roman Catholics, faced significant opposition from the majority Buddhist population

  • Disillusionment and a lack of support from USA: By 1963, the Kennedy administration had grown increasingly frustrated with Diem’s inability to unite the country and effectively combat the Viet Cong insurgency.

  • Kennedy’s support: While there is no evidence that Kennedy ordered the coup, it is widely believed that Kennedy suggested the US would support the coup detat.

Kennedy’s Death

  • On the 22nd of November 1963, just 3 weeks after Diem’s assassination JFK was shot and killed in Dallas Texas.

  • In the final weeks of his life, President Kennedy wrestled with the future of the United States' commitment in Vietnam. Whether he would have increased military involvement or negotiated a withdrawal of military personnel still remains hotly debated among historians and officials who served in the administrations of President Kennedy and President Lyndon B. Johnson. (JFK Library.)

The Debate/s

  • What role did the Kennedy Administration play in the assassination of Diem in 1963?

  • Escalation or Withdrawal:

    • Was Kennedy planning to withdraw American troops from Vietnam?

    • Was Kennedy planning to increase American Involvement in line with his established plan for containment.

What Role Did JFK Play in Escalating Tensions in the Vietnam War?

  • On the day before his assassination, on 21 November 1963, in Fort Worth, Texas, President John F. Kennedy gave a speech which highlighted the importance of the US commitment to Vietnam, where there were then 16,000 US military personnel supporting the South Vietnamese Army in its struggle against a Communist insurgency.

Was JFK Planning to Withdraw?

  • John F. Kennedy and the Vietnam War: The Withdrawal Thesis

  • In 1963, JFK ordered a complete withdrawal from Vietnam.

  • James K. Galbraith

The Debate

  • Dallek, contends that Kennedy was committed to the containment of communism and likely would have continued U.S. involvement in Vietnam. He points to Kennedy's consistent support for South Vietnam and the escalation of military advisors as evidence that Kennedy was not on a clear path to withdrawal. (Robert Dallack)

  • In 1963, JFK ordered a complete withdrawal from Vietnam," published in The Boston Review, Galbraith asserts that Kennedy intended to pull-out all -American military personnel from Vietnam by the end of 1965. He references interviews and documents that suggest Kennedy was deeply sceptical of the U.S. military's optimistic reports about the war's progress.

  • (James K Galbraith)

Preliminary Thoughts:

  • Consider the possibly reasons for JFK’s involvement or complicity in the assassination of Diem.

  • What were the implications for Diem’s assassination on US foreign policy in Vietnam?

  • What were the implications for JFK?

Let's Consider the Debates in Context: 1963

1. Was JFK Planning to Withdraw Troops from Vietnam? Or Was He Planning on Increasing American Involvement?
2. What Role Did JFK Play in the Assassinate of South Vietnam's President Diem?

  • Consider the context:

    • Political Issues:

      • Withdraw or escalate?

      • Diem's assassination?

      • Domestic Political Pressure:

        • What was happening domestically in the USA in 1963 that may have influenced JFK?

      • International Relations:

        • Cold War. How might the Cold War context influenced JFK?

    • Military Issues:

      • Withdraw or escalate?

      • Diem's assassination?

      • Ground operations in Vietnam:

        • What was happening on the ground in Vietnam? Militarily and Politically.

      • Military strategy and objectives:

        • What were the US goals and objectives in Indochina?

    • Other factors

      • Withdraw or escalate?

      • Diem's assassination?

      • JFK's personal

        • beliefs?

      • Legacy

        • How did JFK view the US role in Indochina?

        • Was JFK concerned about his legacy?