Big Ideas - APHG

Unit 1: Thinking Geographically

Map Types

• Reference Map:

  • Displays boundaries, names, and unique identifiers of standard geographic areas.

  • Includes major cultural and physical features.

  • Example: Map of Louisville or the World.

• Thematic Map:

  • Emphasizes a particular theme or special topic (focus of Human Geography).

• Cartogram:

  • Distorts land area to show changes in value.

  • The greater the value being measured, the greater the land area, and vice versa.

  • Example: Cartogram of total population, where China and India would appear larger.

• Choropleth Map:

  • Uses different shades to show the variation of values.

  • Darker shaded areas typically indicate higher, more dense values.

• Dot Map:

  • Uses dots to show different values.

  • More dots = Greater value.

• Graduated Symbol Map:

  • Uses a symbol to represent a certain value.

  • The larger the symbol, the higher the value, and vice versa.

  • Example: Literacy rate in the US, with larger symbols in areas with higher literacy rates.

• Isoline Map:

  • Maps with lines drawn to link different places that share a common value.

Maps and Spatial Patterns

• Space:

  • Absolute:

    • Quantitative (numerical) measure.

    • Examples:

      • Location: $30°N, 25°W$ (longitude/latitude).

      • Distance: in mi., km., etc.

      • Direction: north, south, east, west (directions on a compass).

  • Relative:

    • Qualitative (descriptive) measure, represented by comparing it to a known geographical feature.

    • Examples:

      • Location: near the Washington Monument.

      • Distance: 30 minutes South.

      • Direction: left, right, front, etc.

• Spatial Patterns Represented on Maps:

  • Distance and Direction: absolute and relative (as mentioned above).

  • Uniform: evenly spaced.

  • Clustering/Clumped: grouped/bunched together.

  • Dispersal/Scattered: appears to be distributed over a wide area.

  • Elevation: using levels of how high/low something is located on the Earth’s surface.

  • Agglomeration: grouped together purposely (explained in more detail in later units).

  • Sinuous: shown in a wavy configuration.

  • Random: configured in no specific pattern.

  • Linear: shown in a line configuration.

Map Projections

• A map projection is a transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of locations of a sphere (like Earth) into locations on a flat surface (map).

• All map projections distort the surface (distance, direction, area, or scale) in some fashion.

• Mercator Projection:

  • Type & Creator: Conformal, 1569 - Gerardus Mercator.

  • Benefits: Preserves 90° angles, straight lines of longitude and latitude, shows true direction.

  • Purpose: Best map for nautical use, to help ship captains.

  • Distortion: Poles appear much larger than they are (areas become larger with latitude).

• Robinson Projection:

  • Type & Creator: Compromise, 1963 - Arthur Robinson.

  • Benefits: Not much distortion of continents (size is preserved). Superior alternative to Mercator.

  • Purpose: Most commonly-used and accurate projection. Used in atlases and schools.

  • Distortion: Distorts poles.

• Peters Projection:

  • Type & Creator: Equal-Area, 1967 - Arno Peters.

  • Benefits: Shows accurate shapes and sizes (area) of land masses.

  • Purpose: Used in world maps.

  • Distortion: Distorts oceans and land size.

• Polar Projection:

  • Type & Creator: Azimuthal Equidistant, 1581- Guillaume Postel.

  • Benefits: Distances from the center (poles) are preserved.

  • Purpose: Used by airline pilots to navigate best routes around the Earth. Used as an emblem on the United Nations flag.

  • Distortion: Distorts parallels of latitude.

• Equal Area Map Projection

  • Oceans are distorted to minimize the distortion of the continents

• Conformal Map Projection

  • preserves the shape of features on the map but may greatly distort the size of features

Geospatial Technologies

• Geographic Information System (GIS):

  • A system designed to collect, store, analyze, and present georeferenced data.

  • Data tied to locations on Earth

  • Built around spatial and attribute information

  • Criticized for being too expensive, creating a power divide, and promoting a strongly Western view of the world.

  • Used in all fields of study to make maps that communicate, perform analysis, share information, and solve problems around the world.

  • Examples: Used to predict fish yield in Sub-Saharan Africa, track deforestation in Bolivia, and select sites for new schools in Jamaica.

• Remote Sensing:

  • Gathers information on Earth by using sensors on aircrafts and satellites without making any physical contact with the object.

  • Applications in many fields including natural resource management, hazard assessment, and coastal and ocean applications.

• Satellite Navigational Systems:

  • System of satellites that provide geospatial positioning.

  • Allows electronic receivers (Ex: phone) to determine their location with precision.

  • Examples: Russia’s GLONASS, China’s BeiDou, United States’ GPS.

  • Uses lines of latitude and longitude to allow users to find their exact location, velocity, time, and weather conditions anywhere in the world.

Observations of Spatial Information

The Power of Data

• Geospatial Data:

  • Any data with a geographic aspect that refers to a position on the earth: a house, building, landmark, etc.

  • Processed and analyzed by geographical tools (Remote Sensing, GPS, GIS).

  • Categorized as either vector or raster data.

• Vector Data:

  • Uses points, lines, and polygons.

  • Represents spatial features like cities, roads, and streams.

• Raster Data:

  • Made up of grid cells and pixels. Each pixel has a value.

  • Shows elevation, satellite images, or paper maps.

• Uses of Geospatial Data:

  • Businesses incorporate geospatial data into their analysis, reporting, and forecasting.

  • Governments use geospatial data from censuses to show who people are, where they live, and to draw out congressional and state legislative districts.

  • Governments also use geographical tools like remote sensing, GIS, and GPS for satellite imagery.

Spatial Concepts

• Space:

  • Absolute space

    • Refers to an area whose dimensions can be precisely measured

    • Often compared to a container

    • A formal cultural region is a good example of absolute space

  • Relative Space

    • Created and defined by human interactions

    • Can be represented by a network of linked nodes

• Location

  • Absolute Location

    • A fixed location usually reckoned by latitude and longitude

    • The absolute location of Louisville is $38.2527° N, 85.7585° W$

  • Relative Location

    • The position of a place in respect to other places

    • There are many ways to define one place’s relative location

    • The relative location of Kentucky could be defined as north of Tennessee or south of Indiana.

• Distance Decay
  * The tapering off of a process, pattern, or event because of distance.
  * Varies based on activity

• Time-Space Compression
  * The process of when advances in transportation and communication lessen the effect of distance
  * A flight from Louisville to Los Angeles is roughly six hours which is roughly the same time it takes to drive from Louisville to Atlanta

• Place
  * Locality distinguished by specific physical and social characteristics
  * Places can be identified by their absolute or relative location as well as their site and situation
  * Contributes to the social, political, and economic functioning of our world

Nature and Society

• No Content Provided in the Transcript

Theories of Human Environmental Interaction

• Determinism

  • Originated from the ancient Greeks, grew prominence between 19th and 20th century.

  • Basic Concept: How humans think, behave, and act is determined by the natural climate they are in.

  • Example: Tropical Climate initiates laziness/ relaxation

  • Criticisms:

    • Cultures could say they are superior to others, based only on the climate that they live in.

    • It was a very simple, cause-and-effect relationship, and other nonenvironmental factors also diversify us.

    • Similar climate settings have been proven not to produce the same cultures or behaviors.

• Possibilism

  • Developed in the early 20th century as an alternative to determinism.

  • Much more accepted theory since then, largely due to technological advances.

  • Basic Concept: Humans have choices and their decision-making is the main factor in determining their success. The natural environment is still a factor that develops human culture and can make success more or less challenging.

  • Example: air conditioning can be used to make hot weather places more livable

  • "People Make it Possible"

Scale of Analysis

• Scale: the relationship of the size of a map to the amount of area it represents on the earth

  • Large scale vs. small scale

    • Large scale: shows less area in greater detail

    • Small scale: shows larger area in less detail

• Scale of analysis: the level at which the data is displayed.

  • Global

    • Shows the world at one level of data

    • Example: World

    • This level of analysis is usually not that useful

  • Regional

    • Shows data by continents or world regions

    • Example: In this map Australia has the highest GDP per capita (PPP)

  • National

    • Shows data for one or more countries

    • Example: In this map India has a high population density

  • Local

    • Shows subnational data

    • Example: the states within the United States (could also show even more localized like counties, zip codes)

• Different scales of analysis can lead to different conclusions

Regional Analysis

• Formal Region:

  • Region described by having unifying cultural or physical characteristics

  • Traits that can characterize a formal region:

    • Religion

    • Language

    • Political Boundaries

    • Ethnicity

  • Examples:

    • The Dairy Belt is a formal region due to the commonality of a focus in agriculture of dairy farms in states like Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan.

    • A country, such as India, is a formal region due to shared governance.

    • Key Question- What is the shared characteristic(s)?

• Functional Region:

  • Region defined by a political, social, or economic characteristic. The area must also have a center of activity (a node), like a corporation, entity, or business that organizes the activity.

  • Examples:

    • TARC, Louisville's transportation service, has its office downtown and organizes its bus systems throughout Louisville, spanning from areas like PRP to Prospect.

    • LMPD's service in Jefferson County is an example of a functional region due to its central headquarters downtown, the division offices in different neighborhoods, and the streets they patrol.

    • Key Questions- What is the activity? What is the extent of influence of the node???

• Perceptual Region (Vernacular Region):

  • Region characterized by a population's sense of identity and attraction towards an area and tends to have less-defined boundaries. Boundaries are subject to individual interpretation

  • Examples:

    • The American South is often regarded as a perceptual region due to the shared "Southern" identity of people in the region and the heavy debate on the exact boundaries of the South.
      What does it mean to be Southern? Everyone knows, but the responses will vary based on personal experiences/perceptions

    • Geographers group places together within regions to better understanding the similarities and differences between people and places

Population Distribution

• 3 Basic Dispersion Patterns

  • Uniform - equally-spaced apart

  • Random - no predictable pattern

  • Clumped - bunched in groups

• FACTORS influencing population distribution

  • Climate: extreme areas have a ↓ pop density

    • ex. Europe's temperate climate attracts many people

  • Water Bodies: river valleys may also promote human settlements due to resources

    • ex. Egypt - 95% of the population lives within 5 miles of the Nile River.

  • Landforms: rugged terrain restricts the concentration of population in any area

    • ex. Himalayan Mts. have a ↓. pop. density

  • Politics: stable/fair governments have a ↑ high pop. density

    • ex. Sudan has an unstable gov't and a ↓. pop density

  • Economy: areas w/ developed markets and skilled workers bring in high populations

    • ex. India has a huge economy and a↑ pop. density

  • Culture: cultural practices and ethnic relationships can influence settlement

  • History: ancient settlement locations and colonialism have impacted pop. distribution.

    • ex. Nigeria, the US, and India, all former colonies, have ↑ pop. densities

• Major Population Clusters

  • East Asia

  • South Asia

  • Southeast Asia

  • Nigeria

  • Europe

  • Northeastern United States

Population Density

• Population density is the pressure a population exerts on the land.

  • ARITHMETIC DENSITY: Number of people living in a given unit of land

    • Does not take into account that some land may be unusable (not arable)

    • Ex: Egypt has an arithmetic density of 7 people per sq. km, but much of the land isn't really usable so people are concentrated in the Nile Delta area (density there of 3,900 per sq km!
      $\frac{total\ population}{total\ land\ area} = ARITHMETIC\ DENSITY$

  • PHYSIOLOGICAL DENSITY: Number of people per unit of arable land

    • Arable land: land that can be used for agriculture

    • Takes into account that some land might be inhospitable

    • Gives us insight into the actual pressure on land
      $\frac{total \ population}{total \ arable \ land} = PHYSIOLOGICAL \ DENSITY$

  • AGRICULTURAL DENSITY: # of farmers per unit of arable land, will be lower in areas where there is more commercial ag.

Consequences of Population Distribution

• Population distribution is the way that people are clustered across the globe

• Population is mainly clustered in cities

• 55% of the world’s population now lives in urban areas

• High Rural-Urban Migration Leads To:

  • Social and Economic Consequences:

    • Ageing population in rural areas as young people go to cities for jobs leads to high age-dependency ratio

    • Especially in LDCs, lack of housing compared to rate of migration leads to the creation of slums and shantytowns

    • Diseases are easily spread in urban areas

  • Environmental Consequences:

    • Large population density puts a strain on environmental resources in the area

    • Carrying Capacity is the largest population an area can support

    • High concentration of manufacturing plants and other buildings leads to large amounts of pollution and water contamination

Population Pyramids

• Definition: a bar graph that shows the age and gender composition of a population; helps us see population change in a country

• The pyramid is divided by gender—females on the right, males on the left

• Shows population or population percentage. Scale can change

• Age cohorts: usually each a five-year age span, up to 100 (males and females are both represented from these groups)

• The scale of the pyramid can change what it looks like
  Population Pyramids and the DTM

Population Dynamics

• Looks at how the population of a region, a country or even the world changes.

• 3 factors contribute to population growth and decline

  • Fertility is measured using Crude Birth Rate(CBR). Crude Birth Rate is the number of births per 1000 people per year.

  • Migration- the movement of people to a new area. Doesnt change the total number of people on the planet but does change the people living in a specific area.

  • Mortality is measured using Crude Death Rate(CDR). Crude Death Rate is the number of deaths per 1000 people per year.

• 2 factors increase the population of a country

  • Immigration- Is the movement of a person into a country - Usually into a MDC.

  • Birth Total fertility rate(TFR)- average number of kids a woman will have in her life

• 2 factors decrease the population of a country

  • Emmigration- Is the movement of a person out of a country - Usually out of a LDC Death

  • Infant Mortality Rate- number of deaths under 1 year per 1000 people

• Rate of natural increase(RNI)- the percentage of population growth in an area excluding migration

  • $RNI= (CBR-CDR)/10$

  • The RNI is High in LDCs due to their CBR being high and Low in MDCs due to their CDR being high and CBR being low

• Doubling time- amount of time it will take for a population to double in size.

  • $Doubling\ time= \frac {71}{RNI}$

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

• Demographic Transition Model-shows population change over time.

  • Based off population trends in Europe

  • Observed by Warren Thompson

  • Relates changes in RNI to social change as a result of urbanization and industrialization

  • Describes a shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates over time

• Stage 1: High Stationary

  • Birth Rate: High because…..

    • children needed for farming

    • children die at an early age

    • no family planning

  • Death Rate: High: because …..

    • disease

    • famine

    • poor medical knowledge

  • Natural increase or decrease: stable or very slow increase

  • Example Countries: no example countries (Amazon Tribe Basin)

• Stage 2: Early Expanding

  • Birth Rate: High because….

    • children needed for farming

    • children die at an early age

    • no family planning

  • Death Rate: Falls Rapidly because..

    • contagious diseases

    • but improvements in o medical care o water supply o sanitation

  • Natural Increase or decrease: very rapid increase

  • Example Countries: Egypt Kenya Ethopia

• Stage 3: Late Expanding

  • Birth Rate: Falling because…

    • improved medical care

    • improved diet

    • industrialized

  • Death Rate: Falls more slowly because..

    • contagious diseases

    • but improvements in o medical care o water supply o sanitation

  • Natural Increase or decrease: increases moderately

  • Example Countries: Brazil India

• Stage 4: Low Stationary

  • Birth Rate: Low because…

    • family planning

    • good health

    • improving status of women

    • later marriages

  • Death Rate: Low because..

    • chronic diseases

    • better health care

    • reliable food supply

  • Natural Increase or decrease: stable or very slow increase

  • Example Countries:

    • USA

    • France

    • UK

• Birth Rate: Very Low because..
  * family planning
  * good health
  * improving status of women
  * reliable food supply
  * later marriages

• Death Rate: Low because.. * chronic diseases * better health care

  • Natural increase or decrease:

    • slow decrease

  • Example Countries:

    • Germany

    • Russia

    • Japan

• Limitations:

  • Doesn't take migration into account

  • partial picture of population change

  • low predictive value

  • not directly applicable to developing countries

  • the times are based on the Western European experience

The Epidemiological Transition

• The shift from infectious diseases to chronic diseases.

  • Aligns with the demographic transition model (DTM).

    • Shows most common causes of death in each stage of the DTM.

    • As a country develops more, the main cause of death shifts towards chronic diseases.

  • The main cause of death in LDCs are due to infectious diseases

  • The main cause of death in MDCs are due to chronic diseases

• Infectious Diseases

  • Spread from human to human

  • Often temporary

  • Caused by bacteria and/ or viruses

  • Prominent in LDCs

  • More common due to poor sanitary regulations

  • Occurs in stages 1 and 2 of the DTM

  • Examples include measles and influenza

• Chronic Diseases

  • Is not spread from human to human, instead develops over time as the body becomes weaker

  • Prominent in MDCs

  • More common due to higher life expectancy

  • Can not be cured or prevented usually

  • Examples include multiple sclerosis and arthritis.

• Real World Examples

  • In 2015 about 429,000 people died from malaria, an infectious disease. 91 % of the reported deaths came from Sub-Saharan Africa, which consists of many LDCs.

  • Every year about 610,000 people die to heart disease, a chronic disease, in the United States, which is an MDC.

Malthusian Theory

• THOMAS MALTHUS

  • English Economist

    • Population growth leads to poverty and misery.

    • Environmental Determinist

    • Did not consider technological advancements

    • Positive Checks- Reduce population; famine, disease, etc.

    • Preventative Checks- Actions to prevent population growth; postponing marriage, less sex, etc.

• NED-MALTHUSIANS

  • People who share similar ideas to Malthus

    • World space and resources were limited, but the environment was not the determinant.

    • Carrying Capacity- The maximum number of people that can live on Earth comfortably

    • Want strict population control

• ESTER BOSERUP

  • Danish Economist & Main Critic of Malthus

    • As the population grows, there would be more technologies to produce more food.

    • Possibilist

    • Argued food production could be increased

• CORNUCOPIANS

  • "Necessity is the mother of invention."

    • Cornucopian Theory- Humans can innovate ways to expand the food supply

    • People are a valuable resource.

Population Policies

• Pro-natalist Policies

  • What: Increase Birth Rates /Total Fertility Rates

  • When: DTM Stages, 4-5

  • Problems: Difficult to adjust social norms, infertile mothers can't get benefits

  • Country Examples: France, Germany, Japan, South Korea, Russia

  • Why: Low Population, Aging population, Low fertility rates, Decrease of birth rates

  • Potential Policies: Banning sales of contraceptives, Antiabortion laws, Tax credits, Low cost childcare, Discounted baby needs (Clothes, diapers, food, etc.), Workers paid during maternity /parental leave

• Anti-natalist Policies

  • What: Decrease Birth Rates /Total Fertility Rates

  • When: DTM Stage 2-3

  • Problems: Imbalance of male to female ratio, Difficult to change societal norms

  • Country Examples:

    • China

    • India

    • Kenya

    • Nigeria

  • Why: Low resources available for everyone, Not enough space for settlement

  • Potential Policies: Cheaper sales of contraceptives, Tax penalties, Family education/planning programs, Minimum age for marriage, Promoting education/jobs for women

• Eugenic
  Steering of (pro and anti) natalist policies
  for distinctive groups
  (Example: Nazis Germany)
  Note: Countries could also look towards encouraging immigration if they want to increase their population instead of relying on pronatalist policies,but sometimes don't due to fear of cultural change when different groups enter the country
  Sometimes countries will shift population policies over time

Women and Population

• Education

  • Women typically have much less access to education than men

  • This trend is strongest in LDCs, and among impoverished areas

  • Ex: Somalia- 95% of poorest females aged 7- 16 have never attended school

  • In recent decades, rates of higher education in women have increased (mainly in MDCs)

  • Increased education leads to decreased fertility rates but increased participation in the work force

• Fertility

  • Fertility- the births within a given population

  • Lower in MDCs

    • Women's increased education and participation in politics and the economy cause them to wait to have children

    • Ex: Japan- fertility rates are decreasing as more women pursue careers rather than have children

  • Higher in LDCs

    • Earlier marriage and children due to lack of education or career

    • Ex: Niger- highest total fertility rate of 6.62 (almost 7 children per woman)

  • Gender roles provide many women with a low status, and they do not have access to contraceptives or the opportunity for family planning

• Economic Roles

  • Women have uneven participation in different sectors of the economy

    • Concentrated in the service sector, in careers such as teaching and health care

    • Underrepresented in jobs requiring higher education, such as STEM jobs including architecture or engineering

  • Gender Wage Gap- a global trend in which women are paid less than men

    • Ex: In the United States, women earned just 79 cents for every dollar men made in 2019.

• Political Roles

  • Women participate less in political affairs than men

    • Ex: 2016- only 22.8% of parliament members were female

  • Similar to education and economy, this significant gap has been lessened in recent decades (mainly in MDCs)

    • More educated women leads to greater political participation

• Mortality

  • Mortality- the deaths within a given population

  • Educated women have a lower mortality rate, as they can pursue careers to financially support themselves and have access to healthcare

    • Ex: Sub-Saharan Africa- maternal deaths would be reduced by 70% if all women had a primary education

  • Women are often responsible for the nutrition of the family, especially the children

  • Women's prenatal health impacts Infant Mortality Rates

    • Better prenatal healthcare = lower IMR

Aging Population

• Death Rates Decreasing

  • Better Healthcare

  • Newer medical technology

  • Less infectious diseases

• Birth Rates Decreasing

  • Education of women

  • Less desire for large families

  • Increased use of contraception

  • Rising cost of having/raising children

• Effects

  • Not as many people in the workforce

  • Governments push pronatalist policies to maintain population

  • Money spent on healthcare increases

  • Services for elderly increase ex: retirement homes

  • Old politicians become conservative to appeal to elderly

• Age-dependency Ratio

  • $\frac{Number\ of\ people\ under\ 15\ and\ over\ 65}{Number\ of\ people\ between\ 15\ and\ 65}$

• Blue Zones

  • Areas that have populations with substantially long lives

  • Okinawa, Japan

  • Loma Linda, California

  • Ikaria, Greece

Causes of Migration

• Migration- the relocation of people to a new place for long periods of time

• Voluntary migration- migration that occurs by choice (every voluntary migration is a combination of push and pull factors)

• Forced migration- when migration of people occurs not by choice but is insisted upon by some entity (forced migration it is all push factors)

Forced and Voluntary Migration

• Migration=permanent or long term relocation of a group or of a person from one place to another place.

• Migrant(s)=the person or group that relocate from one place to another place.

• Emigration=the departure from point A, out-migration.

• Forced Migration=a group or a person has no choice but to relocate, no choice in how they leave or the conditions of, and no choice of where they are going.

  • Human Trafficking-women and children forced to move into and work in exploitative conditions such as prostitution with violence and force.

    • Each year there are 2 million-4 million victims of human trafficking.

    • Many victims are from Southeast Asia

    • Common destinations include but are not limited to, Cambodia, China, Japan, Thailand, and Malaysia.

  • Asylum=A granting of protection from a country to a refugee fleeing persecution.

  • Asylum Seekers-A person who has left their country over fear of persecution and hopes to be granted status as a refugee.

    • an airport, a border, an embassy are all places to apply for asylum

    • a judge will decide on granting asylum

  • Refugees-refugees are people who flee their country and arrive in another country over fear of safety or persecution.

    • Ex: Breakup of Yugoslavia led to many people from Bosnia and Herzegovina fleeing as refugees due to war and very dangerous conditions.

  • IDPs-internally displaced persons, people who are forced out of one part of their country to another part of their country

    • Ex: Sudan has about 5 million IDPs due to a civil war.

• Voluntary Migration=the chosen permanent or long term relocation of a group or of a person from one place to another place.

  • Most migration is voluntary and Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration (proposed in 1885 by E.G. Ravenstein) are often applicable.

  • Most people who migrate are unmarried and about 25 years old.

  • Many people may voluntarily migrate due to natural disasters, lack of jobs and economic stability in their country or town. (push factors)

  • Job opportunity, stable government, and freedom of religion can be reasons for wanting to voluntarily migrate. (pull factors)

Effects of Migration

• Unauthorized Immigrant: People who come to a country, but either don’t enter or don’t remain legally; most often they enter LEGALLY with a temporary visa, but remain after their visa expires.

  • Also known as undocumented or illegal immigrants

• Brain Drain: The emigration of people who are considered skilled workers

  • Loss of skilled workers and therefore innovations and ideas in an area; Harms the economy of the home/ source country

  • Can help the country if the skilled workers return to the home country with new skills

  • Occurs most often in Less Developed Countries(LDCs)

• Transnationalism: The process of immigrants developing ties to more than one country

  • Shows that migration demonstrates a system of circulation

  • Migration is not just one way, there are counterflows

  • Migration is part of the reason for the diffusion of different cultural ideas. For example, English spread in part through settler colonies established by England.

  • Historical ties via migration can impact modern political ties between governments,

  Unit 2: Population and Migration Patterns

  Population Distribution and Density

  • Factors influencing population distribution: climate, water bodies, landforms, politics, economy, culture, and history.

  • Major population clusters: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Europe, and Northeastern United States.

  • Arithmetic density: total populationtotal land areatotal land areatotal population​.

  • Physiological density: total populationtotal arable landtotal arable landtotal population​.

  Population Dynamics and the Demographic Transition Model

  • Factors contributing to population change: fertility, migration, and mortality.

  • Demographic Transition Model (DTM): stages include high stationary, early expanding, late expanding, low stationary, and declining.

  • Epidemiological Transition: shift from infectious diseases to chronic diseases.

  Malthusian Theory and Population Policies

  • Malthusian Theory: Population growth leads to poverty; criticized by Boserup and Cornucopians.

  • Population policies: pro-natalist (increase birth rates) and anti-natalist (decrease birth rates).

  Migration

  • Causes of migration: voluntary (push and pull factors) and forced migration.

  • Effects of migration: brain drain, transnationalism, and cultural diffusion.

  Unit 3: Cultural Patterns and Processes

  Culture

  • Defining culture: shared practices, technologies, attitudes, and behaviors.

  • Cultural traits: language, religion, ethnicity, and customs.

  • Cultural hearths: areas where civilizations first began.

  Language

  • Language families: Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Afro-Asiatic, etc.

  • Language diffusion: spread through migration, trade, and communication technologies.

  • Language change: evolution due to isolation, interaction, and globalization.

  Religion

  • Types of religions: universalizing (Christianity, Islam) and ethnic (Hinduism, Judaism).

  • Religious diffusion: spread through missionaries, conquest, and trade routes.

  • Religious landscapes: sacred sites, religious architecture, and cultural practices.

  Ethnicity

  • Ethnic groups: shared ancestry, culture, and identity.

  • Ethnic landscapes: ethnic neighborhoods, cultural markers, and spatial patterns.

  • Ethnic conflicts: arise from competition over resources, political power, and cultural differences.

  Cultural Interactions

  • Acculturation: adoption of host culture traits while maintaining original culture.

  • Assimilation: complete adoption of host culture, loss of original culture.

  • Syncretism: blending of different cultural elements to create new forms.

  • Multiculturalism: coexistence of diverse cultures within a society.

  Cultural Diffusion

  • Types of diffusion: expansion (hierarchical, contagious, stimulus) and relocation diffusion.

  • Barriers to diffusion: physical, cultural, and economic obstacles.

  • Globalization and cultural convergence: increasing interconnectedness, leading to homogenization of cultures.

  Unit 4: Political Patterns and Processes

  Political Geography

  • Defining the state: a political entity with defined territory, government, and sovereignty.

  • Nation-states: a state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity/nationality.

  • Multi-national states: a state that contains two or more ethnic groups with traditions of self-determination that agree to coexist peacefully by recognizing each other as distinct nationalities.

  • Stateless nations: nations of people who do not have a state to call their own.

  Boundaries

  • Types of boundaries: physical (mountains, rivers) and cultural (geometric, linguistic).

  • Boundary disputes: definitional, locational, operational, and allocational.

  • Border landscapes: demarcated spaces reflecting political boundaries.

  Electoral Geography

  • Electoral systems: plurality, majority, proportional representation.

  • Gerrymandering: redrawing electoral boundaries to favor a political party.

  • Spatial patterns of voting behavior: influenced by demographics, ideology, and regional issues.

  Geopolitics

  • Theories: Mackinder's Heartland Theory, Spykman's Rimland Theory, and Wallerstein's World Systems Theory.

  • Supranational organizations: UN, EU, NATO; formed for political, economic, and military cooperation.

  • Devolution: transfer of power from central to regional governments, leading to increased autonomy or secession.

  Unit 5: Agriculture and Rural Land-Use

  Agricultural Practices

  • Types of agriculture: subsistence (shifting cultivation, pastoral nomadism, intensive subsistence) and commercial (mixed farming, plantation agriculture).

  • Agricultural regions: defined by climate, soil, and cultural factors.

  • Agricultural innovations: Green Revolution, biotechnology, and sustainable agriculture.

  Rural Land-Use Patterns

  • Settlement patterns: clustered, dispersed, and linear.

  • Land division patterns: metes and bounds, township and range, and long lots.

  • Rural landscapes: shaped by agricultural activities, infrastructure, and environmental features.

  Agricultural Challenges

  • Food security: access to safe and nutritious food.

  • Environmental impacts: soil erosion, water pollution, deforestation, and greenhouse gas emissions.

  • Economic issues: commodity prices, subsidies, and trade policies.

  Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land-Use

  Urbanization

  • Process of urbanization: rural-to-urban migration, population growth, and economic development.

  • Urban functions: economic, political, cultural, and social roles of cities.

  Urban Models

  • Concentric Zone Model: Burgess (1925)

  • Sector Model: Hoyt (1939)

  • Multiple Nuclei Model: Harris and Ullman (1945)

  • Galactic City Model

  Urban Land-Use Patterns

  • Residential zones: single-family homes, apartments, and public housing.

  • Commercial zones: retail, office, and mixed-use developments.

  • Industrial zones: manufacturing, warehousing, and transportation facilities.

  • Public spaces: parks, plazas, and community centers.

  Urban Challenges

  • Urban sprawl: expansion of low-density development at the urban periphery.

  • Environmental issues: pollution, traffic congestion, and lack of green space.

  • Social issues: segregation, inequality, and crime.

  • Infrastructure challenges: water supply, waste management, and transportation.

  Unit 7: Industrial and Economic Development Patterns

  Industrialization

  • Industrial Revolution: origins, technological innovations, and social impacts.

  • Industrial sectors: primary (resource extraction), secondary (manufacturing), and tertiary (services).

  • Industrial location factors: labor, capital, transportation, and market access.

  Economic Development

  • Measures of development: GDP, GNI, HDI, and social indicators.

  • Development theories: Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth, Dependency Theory, and Neoliberalism.

  • Uneven development: disparities in wealth, income, and access to resources within and between countries.

  Globalization and Trade

  • Global trade patterns: trade blocs, international agreements, and commodity flows.

  • Multinational corporations: role in global production, investment, and consumption.

  Sustainable Development

  • Principles of sustainability: environmental protection, social equity, and economic viability.

  • Sustainable practices: renewable energy, waste reduction, and conservation efforts.