Western Expansion and the Mexican-American War Notes
Western Expansion and the Mexican-American War
Introduction
Western expansion in the two decades before the Civil War saw the US expand its territory significantly, nearly by 70%. This rapid expansion reshaped the nation's economic, social, and political landscape.
This expansion had varying impacts on different racial groups (whites, blacks, Mexicans, Asians) and social classes. While whites generally dominated and benefited from new opportunities, the distribution of acquired wealth also played a crucial role in shaping social hierarchies. The existing social structures were often upended, leading to both advancements and setbacks for different communities.
US Territorial Expansion
Overview of U.S. territorial acquisitions including:-
Oregon Territory (1846): Acquired through a treaty with Great Britain, settling a boundary dispute and opening up the Pacific Northwest for American settlement.
British Cession (1818): Resulted from diplomatic negotiations, defining the northern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase.
Spanish Cession (1819): Also known as the Adams-Onís Treaty, resolved border disputes with Spain and transferred Florida to the U.S.
Louisiana Purchase (1803): Acquired from France, this vast territory doubled the size of the United States, opening new frontiers for exploration and settlement.
Mexican Cession (1848): Obtained after the Mexican-American War, this acquisition included California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.
Gadsden Purchase (1853): Acquired from Mexico, finalized the boundary between the U.S. and Mexico and provided land for a southern transcontinental railroad.
Texas Annexation (1845): Formerly the Republic of Texas, its annexation led to disputes with Mexico and ultimately the Mexican-American War.
Territory of the Original Thirteen States (Ceded by Great Britain) 1783: Recognized U.S. sovereignty over the original colonies after the Revolutionary War.
Alaska Purchase (1867): Acquired from Russia, this purchase expanded U.S. territory into the Arctic and brought valuable natural resources.
Hawaii Annexation (1898): Formerly the Republic of Hawaii, its strategic location in the Pacific made it a valuable acquisition.
Puerto Rico Ceded by Spain 1898: Became a U.S. territory after the Spanish-American War, expanding U.S. influence in the Caribbean.
Virgin Islands Purchased from Denmark 1917: Enhanced U.S. presence in the Caribbean and provided strategic naval advantages during World War I.
Ideology: Manifest Destiny
Early concerns about the increasing size of the US diminished after the Louisiana Purchase as Americans began to see expansion as inevitable and divinely sanctioned.
Manifest Destiny coined in the 1840s by John O’Sullivan, who articulated the belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across the North American continent.
Key theme: "Expanding the Area of Freedom", the idea that American expansion would spread democratic institutions and liberties.
Context: Issue of possible European expansion into the Western Hemisphere, which was seen as a threat to American interests and sovereignty.
John O’Sullivan Quotes
"Yes, we are the nation of progress, of individual freedom, of universal enfranchisement. Equality of rights is the cynosure of our union of States, the grand exemplar of the correlative equality of individuals."
"We must onward to the fulfilment of our mission -- to the entire development of the principle of our organization -- freedom of conscience, freedom of person, freedom of trade and business pursuits, universality of freedom and equality."
"This is our high destiny, and in nature's eternal, inevitable decree of cause and effect we must accomplish it. All this will be our future history, to establish on earth the moral dignity and salvation of man -- the immutable truth and beneficence of God. For this blessed mission to the nations of the world . . . has America been chosen;"
"and her high example shall smite unto death the tyranny of kings, hierarchs, and oligarchs, and carry the glad tidings of peace and good will ….Who, then, can doubt that our country is destined to be the great nation of futurity?"
Colonial Mexico: Northern Frontier
The northern frontier functioned as a buffer zone between Central Mexico and British colonies, serving as a defensive perimeter and a zone of cultural exchange.
Colonial frontier institutions:-
Presidio: (i.e., military fort) strategically located to protect against indigenous raids and foreign incursions; served as trading posts with Indians using a “velvet glove” strategy to establish peaceful relations and mutual commerce.
Missions: Built to establish Spain's presence and territorial claims on the frontier, converting indigenous populations to Christianity and integrating them into Spanish society.
Mexican Independence and Frontier Weakening
Mexican Independence weakened frontier institutions, leading to instability and vulnerability in the northern territories.
The Church: The Vatican refused to recognize independent Mexico (mainly to avoid alienating Spain), which undermined the Church's authority and resources in Mexico.
California missions were secularized, transferring their lands and assets to private ownership, thus diminishing their role in frontier administration.
"Indians" were transformed into "citizens," and the Church lost power over them, altering the traditional social hierarchy and creating new challenges for governance.
The tithe became voluntary, reducing the Church's income and ability to support its activities on the frontier.
Presidios weakened after Mexican Independence due to the impoverished nation. Soldier numbers in CA dropped significantly between Independence and the 1840s, leaving the region vulnerable to external threats and internal unrest. Some soldiers became bandits, exacerbating lawlessness and instability.
Early Mexican Views of the United States
Friend: Monroe Doctrine (1823) led to positive beginnings for US-Mexican Relations, signaling American support for Latin American independence.
Created solidarity between the US and Latin American nations, as they shared a common experience of breaking free from European colonialism.
The US & Latin America had faced the oppression of colonialism and broken free from it, fostering a sense of shared identity and purpose.
Monroe’s warning to Europe: do not attempt to recolonize the Americas, which was seen as a safeguard for the newly independent nations.
Growing Mexican Concerns About the US
Economic Colonialism- Mexico dismantled mercantilism and established trade with the US, leading to economic dependency and exploitation.
Santa Fe Trail (St Louis to NM with beaver pelt trade), facilitating commerce but also allowing American influence to penetrate Mexican territory.
California: New England merchants to Dana Point with seal pelts, etc., exploiting natural resources and establishing a commercial presence.
Texas: wine, wood, cotton, lumber, extracting raw materials and integrating Texas into the American economy.
Northwest: Gold discoveries brings investment, stimulating economic growth but also leading to environmental degradation and social disruption.
Indios barbaros- US encounters Comanche in North and Apache in Northwest, leading to conflicts and shifting alliances.
Americans replace Mexicans as gift-givers, undermining Mexican authority and creating dependencies among Native American tribes.
US encourages Native American attacks on Mexican settlements, destabilizing the frontier and weakening Mexican control.
American Filibusters into Mexico, Central America, Cuba, private military adventurers conducting unauthorized military expeditions into foreign countries, further destabilizing the region.
Texas Example: US Turns from Friend to Foe
Positive blueprint:-
Colonization development plan: invite colonists to populate and develop the region.
Mexico entices Americans to Texas with land grants and tax exemptions, aiming to boost economic activity and integrate the region.
The idea was that they would become “Mexicanized