Midterm studyguide

Part I: WH Content (50 points)

Definition: Period in European history marked by a rebirth of classical antiquity, reflecting the worlds of the Greeks and Romans.
Renaissance (Wo)Man: Symbolizes the ideal individual who embodies the spirit of the Renaissance through diverse achievements.
Humanism:
- Intellectual movement emphasizing the study of classical literature of Greece and Rome.
- Celebrates secular achievements and the human ability to shape one's own destiny.
Dante and the Divine Comedy:
- Known for his epic poem, which represents a journey through hell, purgatory, and into heaven.
Printing Press:
- Invented by Johannes Gutenberg.
- Revolutionized the dissemination of information, allowing ideas to spread rapidly.

Definition: Movement that led to the establishment of Protestantism, breaking away from the Catholic Church.
Martin Luther:
- A Catholic monk and professor.
- Argued that salvation comes through faith alone, challenging the Church's authority on good deeds.
- His study of the Bible emphasized it as the only valid source of religious truth.
95 Theses:
- Luther's chief complaints against the Church, particularly against the sale of indulgences.
- Posted on October 31, 1517, leading to widespread reform.
Consequences of 95 Theses:
- Prompted Luther's excommunication and significant theological debates in Europe.
- Sparked the Lutheran movement, allowing for religious services in German, increasing accessibility.

Henry VIII:
- Sought an annulment from his first wife, Catherine, to marry Anne Boleyn.
- Created the Anglican Church as Parliament declared the marriage invalid in 1534.
- Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, would later become a key ruler of England.
Catholic Counter-Reformation:
- Addressed the challenges from Lutheranism and Calvinism in various regions.
- Included the formation of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), stressing education and missionary work.
- The Council of Trent reaffirmed Catholic doctrines over 18 years.

Aztec Conquest:
- Hernán Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlan in 1519, initially welcomed but later capturing Moctezuma, leading to revolt and siege (Battle of Tenochtitlan) in 1521.
Inca Conquest:
- Francisco Pizarro took advantage of a civil war among the Incas, capturing Atahualpa in the Battle of Cajamarca (1532).
Columbus:
- In 1492, sailed from Spain seeking a westward route to Asia.
- Landed in the Bahamas, mistakenly believing he reached Asia, thus initiating European colonization.
- The Columbian Exchange connected the old world (Eastern Hemisphere) with the new world (Western Hemisphere).

Absolute Ruler: A monarch with total control over an empire, without checks from other entities.
Divine Right: The belief that monarchs are God's representatives on Earth.
Key Rulers:
- King Louis XIV: Centralized power, built the Palace of Versailles, and oversaw a vast expansion of French territory.
- Philip II of Spain: Enforced Catholicism, ruled territories rich in resources, attempted to conquer England in 1588.
- Frederick the Great: Modernized Prussia and supported arts despite religious toleration issues.
- Maria Theresa: Maintained relative peace although she faced internal pressures, such as losing Silesia.
- Czar Peter the Great: Introduced Western reforms, established St. Petersburg, and expanded Russia's territory.

Definition: A transformative period in the 16th and 17th centuries that revolutionized scientific thought, shifting focus from religious explanations to empirical observation and experimentation.
Key Figures:
- Isaac Newton: Formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation; mathematics underpinned his discoveries.
- Nicolaus Copernicus: Proposed heliocentric theory, revolutionizing the understanding of the solar system.
- Galileo Galilei: Utilized the telescope to observe celestial bodies, challenging existing doctrines.
- Andreas Vesalius: Known for his foundational work in human anatomy.
- William Harvey: Discovered blood circulation.

Period: Characterized by widespread philosophical, political, and scientific discourse from the late 17th to early 19th centuries, following the Scientific Revolution.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Advocated for the social contract where citizens collectively govern.
John Locke: Introduced natural rights of life, liberty, and property, influencing future democratic ideals.
Baron de Montesquieu: Proposed separation of powers to protect individual liberty, shaping modern governance.

Key Event: Began in 1789, dramatically altering the political landscape of France by dismantling the monarchy.
Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Revolutionary motto emphasizing democratic principles.
Olympe de Gouges: Authored the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Female Citizen, advocating for women's rights.
Napoleon Bonaparte: Rose to power post-revolution, establishing a republic while assuming dictatorial power.

Motivated by a desire for independence from British taxation and lack of representation.
Declaration of Independence: Influenced by Enlightenment principles, reiterating rights to liberty and governance by consent.
US Bill of Rights: First ten amendments guaranteeing fundamental freedoms and protections.