AP Psych Unit 1

UNIT 1

Psychology is a science because it uses the scientific method

• It is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes 

• A combination of philosophy and physiology 

What makes Psychology a Science?

1. Empirical Evidence 

   1. Information acquired by observation or experimentation

   2. Using your senses

2. Scientific Method

Perspectives in Psychology

• There are a variety of perspectives or approaches to explain why people think and act the way they do

  • Some are historical while others are modern approaches to psychology

  • Early Approaches: Structuralism & Functionalism 

• Evolutionary Perspective - psychologists and researchers take the basic principles of evolution, including natural selection and apply them to psychological phenomena

  • Mental processes exist because they serve an evolutionary purpose

• Psychodynamic Perspective - emphasizes that behavior is determined by your past experiences that are left in the unconscious mind and childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult personality

• Behavioral Perspective - focus on observable and learned behaviors, our behavior is controlled by our environment

  • We are more likely do things with a positive outcome than a negative outcome

• Humanistic Perspective - emphasizes the human capacity for choice and growth, and ability to fulfill their potential

  • Focuses on the future rather than the past

• Cognitive Perspective - focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving, language, and learning (internal processes of the mind) influencing behavior

• Sociocultural Perspective - focuses on society and culture in terms of our behavior and shaping cognition, Eclectic Approach

• Biological Perspective - the influence of genetics and brain chemistry on thinking and behavior physical and biological processes

  • Grown significantly with the advancement of technology

• Biopsychosocial Approach - Eclectic (combining) Approach, Multiple Perspectives included, links between genetics and environment

  • Encompasses biological, sociocultural, and psychosocial approaches

Research Methods in Psychology 

• Basic Research - applying scientific knowledge

• Applied Research - applying problem solving

• Case Study - observation technique in which one individual or just a few individuals are carefully studied in depth

  • Can involve ordinary people or often complex and rare phenomena

• Survey Method Technique - self report data, relies on the individuals own report of their symptoms, behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes

Natural Observation - observing things in a natural environment

Laboratory Observation - involves observing behavior in a more contrived and controlled situation, usually in a laboratory setting

Observer Effect - when people know they are benign watched, they behave less naturally

• Observer bias - people who act as observers are closely involved in research project and may unconsciously skew their observations to fit their research goals or expectations

• Strength - allows the investigators to directly observe the subject in a natural setting

• Limitation - allows researchers no real control

Correlation Studies - researches a link between two variables

• Correlation DOES NOT EQUAL causation

• Correlation Coefficient (r) - the direction of the relationship between variable and its strength, helps us figure how closely two things vary together, and thus how well either one predicts and the other

  • Numbers range from +1.00 and -1.00

  • Uses a scatter plot

  • Positive Correlation - both variables increase or decrease

  • Negative Correlation - one variable increases, and the other decreases

  • Illusory Correlation - a perceived but nonexistent correlation

  • Third Variable - researchers cannot rule out the possibility that there is a third variable in many situations

Experimental Method - manipulating variables; the only way to establish cause-and-effect relationship between two variables is to conduct a scientific experiment

• Changes in one variable can lead to changes in another

Variable - anything that can vary of change

• Independent variable - the variable that the experimenter can control

• Dependent variable - the resulting variable, the variable that is being measured or tested in an experiment

• Confounding Variable - “Lurking Variable,” differences between the experimental group and control group other than those resulting from the independent variable

Operational Definition - a definition of how the variable in terms of precisely how it is to be measured

Population - includes all of the individuals in the group to which the study applies 

• Representative Sample - a group that closely matches the characteristics of a population as a whole

• Random Sample - select people to participate in research in such a way that everyone in the population has an equal chance of being included

• Control Group - no treatment or some kind of treatment with no effect, used to control for the possibility that other factors might be causing the effect that is being examined

• Random Assignment - process that ensures all members have an equal chance of being placed in either control or experimental groups

• Quasi Experiment - designed a lot like a true experiment except that the participants are not randomly assigned to experimental groups

• Placebo Condition “Expectation” - allows researchers to separate the effect if the variable itself from the expectations of the participants

• Single-Blind Studies - a research design in which the participants don’t know which treatment group - experimental or control - they are in

Validity “Accuracy” - the experiment is testing what it is supposed to test

• It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted

Statistics - a large amount of data collected in research studies 

• Descriptive Statistics - show or summarize data in a meaningful way such that patterns emerge from the data

• Measure of Central Technology 

  • Mean

  • Median

  • Mode

  • Range

• Standard Deviation - scores in a group differ from the mean of that group 

  • Large SD: numbers are spread out and range is wide

  • Small SD: numbers are together and range is small

  • Z Scores - the number of standard deviations from the mean a data point is

    • Range from -3 deviations to +3 deviations

  • Standard Deviation tells you how accurate your results are

• Skewed Data - An outlier is disproportionately affecting the mean, A few of the scores stretch out away from the group like a tail. The skew is named for the direction of the tail.

Statistical Significance - a measure of the likelihood that the difference between groups results from a real difference between the two groups rather than from chance alone

• The most common cut off for p values is (0.05) 5% to be considered to be statistically significant

Null Hypothesis - predicts that there will not be significant relationship 

• The goal is to DISPROVE this hypothesis, as it predicts that results cannot be applied to a larger population

Meta Analysis (Technique) - provides a way of statistically combining the results of individual research studies to reach an overall conclusion 

• Basically making a study of studies

Ethics - the correct rules of conduct and moral principles necessary when carrying out research

• Psychologists must act morally and responsibly 

• Principles are developed by the American Psychological Association and by psychologist internationally

• General Principle - psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they work and take care to do no harm

  • All experiments can cause stress and anxiety 

• Informed Consent - provides a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, including potential risks and implications of the research

  • Participants must sign in an informed consent waiver before being in an experiment 

• Discontinuing Participation - you can leave an experiment whenever you want even if you signed an informed consent waiver

• Deception - misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the deception could be considered harmful

  • Confederate - individuals who appear to be participants but are actually part of the research group

• Debriefing - the process of giving participants in a completed research project a fuller explanation of the study they just participated in that could not be given before the experiment 

  • Helps the participants leave in a peaceful state of mind

• Animal Testing - animals are acceptable substitutes for research that would be considered unethical in human participants since they live shorter lives, are easier to control, and engage in simple behavior

  • Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)