Italian Unification Notes

Background

• Unified by the Roman Empire for ~700 years until its fall.
• The title “King of Italy” emerged with the Holy Roman Empire in 800 CE.
• The Holy Roman Emperor was German and disinterested in Italy, leading to independent city-states ruled by powerful families.
• Unification ideas began with the Revolutions of the 1820-30s and 1848, rebelling against the Congress of Vienna's outcome.

Foreign Involvement: Pre-Napoleonic Italy

• Piedmont (Sardinia): Ruled by the House of Savoy, the only “Italian” leader.
• Kingdom of Two Sicilies: Ruled by the Bourbons (Spanish).
• Lombardy, Tuscany, Venetia: Under varying degrees of Austrian (Hapsburg) control.
• Papal States: Governed by the Pope, reliant on other Catholic states for support.

Foreign Involvement: Napoleonic Empire

• Kingdom of Italy (1805): Napoleon’s stepson Eugene in control.
• Annexation of Naples (1806): Napoleon’s brother (Joseph), then brother-in-law (Joachim Murat) in control.
• Papal States occupied (1809): Pope taken ‘prisoner’.

Goals of the Congress of Vienna (1815)

• Ensure France wouldn't regain a foothold in Italy, placing the peninsula under Austria’s control. Austria directly ruled the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.
• Austria’s power supported Italian thrones, suppressing revolutions with Austrian forces.
• Political unrest stemmed from opposition to reactionary Restoration autocracies, not just nationalism.

Italy in 1815

• The Congress of Vienna opposed liberal and nationalist changes, reorganizing Italian states under conservative Great Powers like Austria and France.

• More than a dozen Italian states existed, mostly under foreign influence.

• Kingdom of the Two Sicilies: Unified Sicily and Naples under the rule of Ferdinand I, an arbitrary and cruel Bourbon ruler. They had an alliance with Austria.

• Papal States: Backwards, illiberal, and poor, ruled by the Pope. Austria supported the Pope to protect the Catholic faith.

• Duchies of Modena, Parma, and Tuscany: Central Italian independent duchies controlled by Austrian Habsburgs.

• Lombardy and Venetia: Richest Italian states given to Austria as compensation for the Napoleonic wars. Experienced Austrian repression and heavy taxation.

• Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia: Included Genoa, Nice, and Savoy, created as a SE buffer against French expansion. Ruled by the House of Savoy under King Victor Emmanuel, the only Italian royal house.

Rise of Nationalism in Italy

• Italian nationalists looked to the Pope or Sardinia for leadership, needing to create a sense of pan-Italian unity to expel foreigners.
• Metternich: “Italy can no more be called a nation than a stack of timber can be called a ship.” He believed a unified Italy would be disadvantageous to him personally.

Nationalism: A Force For Unity in Italy

• The Risorgimento represents Italian Unification.

Nationalism Review

• Nationalism: Loyalty to a nation of people with a shared culture and history, aiming for a nation-state with its own government.
• Bonds That Can Create a Nation-State:
  • Ethnicity: A belief in common ethnic ancestry.
  • Language: Shared language or dialects.
  • Culture: Shared way of life (food, dress, ideals).
  • History: Common past and experiences.
  • Religion: Shared religion.
  • Territory: Specific territory belonging to the ethnic group.

Rise of Nationalism in Italy

• Modern nationalism arrived with Napoleon. Italian liberals supported his reforms, including abolishing feudalism, ensuring religious freedom, establishing legal codes, and modernizing infrastructure.
• Italy was divided into three main groupings:
  • North West and Papal states: Incorporated into the French Empire.
  • Kingdoms of Italy (NE) and Sicily: Satellite states under French rule.
• Harsh rule (repression, taxation, conscription, theft of art) caused nationalist hostility and a desire for a unified Italy to resist foreign domination.

Early Nationalist Movements/Growth of Opposition

• The Carbonari: A secret society advocating liberal and patriotic ideas, opposing conservative regimes after Napoleon's fall in 1815.
• Different Aims:
  • Italy becoming a nation.
  • Democratically elected parliament.
  • Local constitutional reform.
  • Overthrow of absolute monarchs.
  • Liberation of Italy from Austrian grip.
• Their influence prepared the way for the Risorgimento movement, resulting in Italian unification in 1861.

Italy During the Age of Revolution

• Revolutions occurred in most Italian states in 1820-1/1831 and 1848-9, inspired by:
  • Nationalism: A united Italy and opposition to Austria’s presence.
  • Liberalism: More liberal government forms.
  • Economic difficulties: Social conflict in urban and rural areas.
• The revolutions of 1820-1/1831 fought for liberal changes rather than just national unification.

Early Attempts at Liberal/Nationalist Revolution

• Nationalists and liberals formed groups like the Carbonari, responsible for early uprisings. Austria suppressed these uprisings.
• Local movements alone were unsuccessful; a national movement and sentiment were required.
• In 1846, Pope Pius IX initially showed progressive sympathies but remained too conservative to unite Italy. The Papacy was not the vehicle for unification.

Giuseppe Mazzini

• Born in Genoa in 1805.
• Joined the Carbonari in 1827 but was disappointed, leading him to form “Young Italy” in 1831.
• Viewed as a romantic hero with nationalistic and liberal goals.
• Called for an end to foreign rule and Italian unification based on common language and culture.
• The Italian nationalist movement was called the Risorgimento (“resurgence”).
• After the failure of the Revolution of 1848, Mazzini was exiled and believed that Italians must achieve national unity by their own efforts, “Italy will make itself.”

Young Italy

• Mazzini organized Young Italy in 1831-33, aiming to recruit the educated middle class and urban artisans.
• Envisioned a revolution followed by the establishment of a national assembly.
• Propaganda materials were distributed throughout Piedmont, Tuscany, and the Papal States.
• Members had to be under 40 and dedicate themselves to making Italy “one free, independent republican nation” under the motto “Unity, Force & Liberty”.

The Revolutions of 1848-9

• Age of Revolution: 1789-1848, a period of massive political change in Europe starting with the French Revolution and concluding with conservative reactions at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
• The Revolutions of 1848-9 in Italy are often called the Wars of Italian Independence against Austrian and Bourbon domination.
• Causes:
  • Liberal demands for constitutions and political freedom combined with nationalist demands for a united Italy amidst an economic crisis.
  • Disastrous harvests led to food shortages in 1846-7.
  • Growing national consciousness supported by a liberal Pope and an Italian King in Piedmont.
  • Metternich’s ouster weakened Austria.

Timeline: Events of the Revolutions of 1848

• January 1848: Sicilian liberals rose against King Ferdinand I, forcing him to enact a constitution in Sicily.
• March 1848:
  • Sardinian King Charles Albert issued a constitution to gain liberal support and declared war on Austria.
  • Lost against Austria, proving no match for Austrian forces.
  • Naples, Tuscany, and the Papal States joined an ‘alliance’ with Piedmont.
• April 1848:
  • Pius IX withdrew support for the war against Austria because Austria is a Catholic nation.
  • The Pope supported tradition/religion over rebellion.
• July 1848: Piedmont was defeated by Austria and signed an armistice.
• March 1849:
  • Piedmont re-entered the war without French support and was defeated.
  • Charles Albert abdicated, and his son, Victor Emmanuel II, assumed the throne.
• Austria, fearing France, treated Piedmont leniently.

Results of The Revolutions of 1848

• In 1849, Charles Albert was defeated twice by Austria, who retook Lombardy and Venetia. He was replaced by his son, Victor Emmanuel II.
• A revolution led by Mazzini created a republic in Rome, replacing the Pope who fled. However, French troops (Napoleon III) retook Rome.
• The Sicilies fell to Austrian-supported Ferdinand, and Venice surrendered by August.
• All revolutions failed except in Piedmont, where the constitution was maintained. Italian nationalism was not yet strong enough.

Positive Effects

• King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia supported national unity under Sardinian rule.
• Roman republicans under Mazzini inspired Italian patriots everywhere.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi emerged as an important leader.

Why did it fail?

• Austria crushed revolts.
• The Pope did not support the war, ensuring he would not be the leader of Italian unity.
• Romantic idealism/nationalism could not succeed against the existing order without force.

Italy After 1848

• The Pope's ouster by Mazzini and Garibaldi made him an opponent of Italian nationalism.
• The military might of Austria remained an obstacle.
• French troops arrived in Italy, especially in Rome/Papal States, presenting another obstacle.
• Realization that