FW 404: Dickinson Ch8
White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
Ecological and Economic Importance
The white-tailed deer is the most important wildlife species in the South, both economically and ecologically.
Annual harvest in the region currently exceeds 1 million animals.
Ecologically, whitetails are considered a "keystone species" because their browsing and habitat manipulation influence conditions for numerous other wildlife species.
Deer hunting contributes significantly to the economy, generating about $2.2 billion in retail sales annually and supporting 59,000 jobs.
History and Distribution
Early European accounts reported abundant populations. Native Americans used deer for subsistence, tools, fabric, and hides.
Deer populations were historically abundant in the South partly due to Native American agriculture and fire, creating lush habitats.
Over-exploitation began shortly after European settlement through market hunting and trade in hides/venison, coupled with extensive agricultural clearing.
Deer were extirpated from many Southern areas by the mid- to late 1800s.
Restoration efforts, boosted by the Pittman-Robertson Act (1937), largely restored deer to their former range by the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Current populations and harvests have increased dramatically since the early 1980s. Several Southern states (including Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, and Texas) each have populations exceeding 1 million animals.
Behavior and Social Structure
The basic social unit is the matriarchal group, consisting of the mother, her young, and previous female offspring.
Adult males ($\geq 1.5$ years old) form loose bachelor groups outside the breeding season.
The breeding season is regulated by decreasing photoperiod. The timing of the rut varies across the South, generally progressing later westward.
Peak conception in the lower Coastal Plain of South Carolina is mid-October.
Peak breeding in the Georgia Piedmont is typically early to mid-November.
Gestation averages 202 days.
Fawns are hiders, utilizing their spotted pelage for camouflage. Fawns are functionally weaned by 10 weeks of age.
Whitetails are typically crepuscular (active at dawn/dusk).
Home ranges are generally small (200 to 1,000 acres).
Habitat and Diet
Soil fertility and productivity are the most important factors affecting deer populations in the South.
Highest quality habitats occur in agricultural areas of the Piedmont, Upper Coastal Plain, and cultural areas of the Midwest. Suboptimal habitat includes the Appalachian Mountains and Coastal Plain flatwoods.
Whitetails are browsers, consuming leaves, shoots, and twigs of shrubs, trees, and vines. They are highly selective for palatable and nutritious plants.
Forbs are used heavily in spring and early summer, sometimes constituting over 50% of the diet.
Acorns are a critical, high-energy component of the fall diet in virtually all habitat types.
Protein requirements for weaned fawns are 14 to 22%; maintenance requirements for adults are 6 to 13%.
Interactions and Diseases
Major predators other than humans are coyotes and bobcats. Predation rates are usually low relative to other mortality factors.
High deer populations can negatively impact forest regeneration and contribute to declines in ground-nesting birds and shrub-nesting songbirds.
Whitetails are hosts to over 100 species of parasites and disease organisms.
The most significant diseases are Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease (EHD) and Bluetongue virus (BTV).
Ticks are the most important external parasites. The black-legged tick transmits Lyme disease and human granulocytic ehrlichiosis, while the lone star tick transmits rickettsial disease.
Management and Hunting Trends
Deer management primarily involves manipulating mortality (harvest) relative to habitat manipulation.
Habitat Management: Timber guidelines often mandate that over one-third of a square mile of land be kept under ages 20+ years. Thinning forest stands increases browse availability.
Food Plots: High-quality food plots (e.g., perennial clover or corn/soybeans) can enhance reproduction and antler development.
A growing trend among hunters is the practice of Quality Deer Management (QDM), aiming to balance deer herds ecologically and socially by promoting older age structures and appropriate sex ratios.
There is a nationwide trend toward a decline in hunter numbers, though the percentage of the population hunting is declining, the absolute number has only stabilized or declined slightly.
Public support for hunting is eroding as some citizens view sporting as cruel and antisocial.
Negative consequences of overabundant deer populations include crop depredation and urban/suburban damage.