Notes on Realist Theory of International Politics

Politics Among Nations by Hans J. Morgenthau

Works by Hans J. Morgenthau:

"Politics Among Nations" (1948, multiple editions)
"In Defense of the National Interest" (1951)
"The Purpose of American Politics" (1960)
"Principles and Problems of International Politics" (edited with Kenneth W. Thompson, 1950)

A Realist Theory of International Politics

Theory Evaluation

A theory of international politics must be judged empirically and pragmatically, not abstractly.
It should bring order and meaning to complex phenomena.
The theory needs to be consistent with facts and internally logical.

Two Schools of Thought

One school believes in achieving a rational and moral political order based on universally valid abstract principles.
- Assumes human goodness and malleability.
- Blames social order failures on lack of knowledge, obsolete institutions, or depraved individuals.
- Trusts education, reform, and force to remedy defects.
The other school believes the world's imperfections result from inherent forces in human nature.
- One must work with these forces.
- Moral principles are approximated through balancing interests and settling conflicts.
- Sees checks and balances as a universal principle.
- Appeals to historic precedent and aims for the lesser evil.

Political Realism

Deals with human nature as it is and historic processes as they take place.

Six Principles of Political Realism

Objective Laws:
- Politics is governed by objective laws rooted in human nature.
- Understanding these laws is necessary to improve society.
- These laws are impervious to our preferences.
- Rational theory can reflect these objective laws.
- Distinguishes between objective truth and subjective judgment.
- Human nature hasn't changed since classical times.
- Theory consists of ascertaining facts and giving them meaning through reason.
- Foreign policy character is ascertained through political acts and their consequences.
- Approach political reality with a rational outline to understand foreign policy.
- Test rational hypotheses against facts to give meaning to international politics.
Interest Defined as Power:
- The concept of interest defined as power is the main signpost.
- Links reason and facts.
- Sets politics as an autonomous sphere apart from economics, ethics, aesthetics, or religion.
- Statesmen think and act in terms of interest defined as power.
- This allows us to understand and anticipate their actions.
- Provides rational discipline in action and continuity in foreign policy.
- Guards against the fallacy of focusing on motives and ideological preferences.
- Motives are illusive and distorted.
- There is no necessary correlation between motives and the quality of foreign policy.
- Good intentions do not guarantee morally praiseworthy or politically successful policies.
- What matters is the intellectual ability to comprehend essentials and translate them into successful action.
- Political theory judges the political qualities of intellect, will, and action.
- Avoid equating foreign policies with philosophic or political sympathies.
- Distinguish between "official duty" (national interest) and "personal wish" (moral values).
- Requires a sharp distinction between the desirable and the possible.
- Deviations from rationality occur due to personality, prejudice, and weaknesses.
- Democratic control can impair rationality.
- Aims to present the rational essence of foreign policy.
- Modern psychology might provide a counter-theory of irrational politics.
- The Indochina War suggests factors like:
  - Imposing simplistic pictures of the world.
  - Refusing to correct misperceptions.
  - Using intelligence to reinterpret reality to fit policy.
  - Egotism widening the gap between perception and reality.
  - Urge to close the gap through action creating the illusion of mastery.
- Difference between international politics and rational theory is like a photograph versus a painted portrait.
- Political realism contains a normative element.
- Stresses rational elements of political reality to make it intelligible.
- A rational foreign policy minimizes risks and maximizes benefits.
- Theory must focus on rational elements, and foreign policy ought to be rational.
Interest as an Objective Category
- Realism assumes interest defined as power is universally valid, but its meaning isn't fixed.
- The idea of interest is essential to politics.
- Thucydides: "Identity of interests is the surest of bonds."
- Lord Salisbury: "The only bond of union that endures is the absence of all clashing interests."
- George Washington: Interest is the governing principle for most people.
- Max Weber: Interests dominate actions, but ideas determine the tracks of those actions.
- The kind of interest depends on the political and cultural context.
- Power includes anything that establishes control of man over man.
- Power can be disciplined by moral ends or be untamed and barbaric.
- Realism doesn't assume current conditions can't be changed.
- The balance of power can operate under stability and peace.
- The connection between interest and the nation-state is a product of history.
- The realist position doesn't prevent replacing nation-states with larger units.
- Transformation can be achieved through manipulating perennial forces.
- Cannot transform by confronting political reality with an abstract ideal.
Moral Significance of Political Action:
- Aware of the tension between moral command and political action.
- Universal moral principles must be filtered through concrete circumstances.
- Individuals can sacrifice themselves for a moral principle, but states cannot put moral disapprobation above national survival.
- No political morality without prudence.
- Prudence is the supreme virtue in politics.
- Political ethics judges action by political consequences.
- Lincoln: Do the best you can, and if the end is right, criticism won't matter.
Moral Aspirations and Moral Laws:
- Refuses to identify a nation's moral aspirations with universal moral laws.
- Distinguishes between truth and idolatry.
- Nations are tempted to clothe actions in moral purposes.
- Belief that all nations are under God's judgment differs from believing God is always on one's side.
- Equating nationalism with Providence is morally indefensible.
- Concept of interest defined as power saves us from moral excess and political folly.
- If we look at all nations pursuing interests, we can do justice to them.
- Moderation in policy reflects moderation of moral judgment.
Difference Between Realism and Other Schools:
- Distinct intellectual and moral attitude.
- Maintains autonomy of the political sphere.
- Thinks in terms of interest defined as power.
- Subordinates other standards to those of politics.
- Takes issue with the "legalistic-moralistic approach."
- Examples:
  - Soviet Union attacking Finland (1939): France and Great Britain focused on the legal violation rather than the impact on their interests and power balance.
  - Communist government of China: The Western world focused on moral principles rather than the interests and power dynamics.
  - Great Britain entering World War I: Could be justified realistically (preventing hostile power control of Low Countries) or legalistically-moralistically (violation of Belgium's neutrality).
- The realist defense doesn't disregard other modes of thought but assigns each its proper sphere.
- Based on a pluralistic conception of human nature (economic, political, moral, religious man, etc.).
- To understand one facet, abstract from others and apply appropriate standards.
- Economics developed as an autonomous theory through this process.
- Aims to contribute to similar development in politics.
- A theory based on these principles won't meet unanimous approval.
- Runs counter to trends that disparage power and those that can't face the truth of politics.
- The human mind disguises and distorts the truth.
- A theory understanding international politics as it is must overcome psychological resistance.