SEM 9: Germany and the outside world since 1990

Seminar questions:

1. Who have been the leading personalities involved in the making of German foreign policy since 1990? What do you think of them? Have they been successful?

   • Helmut Kohl (Chancellor, 1982-1998)

     • Played a crucial role in German reunification (1990).

     • Advocated for European integration and the introduction of the Euro -> created the European Union

     • Strengthened ties with the US and NATO while maintaining good relations with Russia.

     • Success? Yes, in terms of reunification and EU leadership, but his later years were marred by a party funding scandal.

   • Joschka Fischer (Foreign Minister, 1998-2005)

     • A Green Party politician who shifted from pacifism to supporting NATO intervention in Kosovo (1999).

     • Advocated for stronger European unity and multilateral diplomacy.

     • Success? Mixed; his Kosovo stance was controversial but showed Germany’s increasing global responsibility.

   • Gerhard Schröder (Chancellor, 1998-2005)

     • Opposed the 2003 Iraq War, emphasizing diplomacy over military action.

     • Strengthened Germany-Russia ties (especially in energy policy).

     • Success? His stance on Iraq was praised, but reliance on Russian energy later became problematic.

   • Angela Merkel (Chancellor, 2005-2021)

     • Known for pragmatic leadership, balancing relations with the US, EU, Russia, and China.

     • Handled multiple crises, including the Eurozone crisis, Ukraine conflict (2014), and migration crisis (2015).

     • Success? Highly regarded for stability and crisis management, but criticized for dependence on Russian gas.

   • Olaf Scholz (Chancellor, 2021-present)

     • Initially hesitant in the Ukraine war but later committed to major military support.

     • Pushes for stronger European defence but struggles with decisive leadership.

     • Success? Still evolving; facing criticism for slow action in foreign policy crises.

   • Characterised by pragmatism, European integration

2. What have been the main international problems with which German foreign policy-makers have had to deal since 1990? How well has Germany tackled them?

   • German Reunification

     • Had to reintroduce East GER back into FRG

     • Establishing EU

   • Balkan Wars (1990s)

     • Initially hesitant but later supported NATO’s intervention in Kosovo (1999).

     • Assessment: Germany transitioned from pacifism to active participation, showing global responsibility.

   • Iraq War (2003)

     • Strongly opposed US-led intervention under Schröder.

     • Assessment: Gained credibility as an advocate for diplomacy but strained US relations.

   • Eurozone Crisis (2010s)

     • Led bailout efforts for Greece and other struggling economies.

     • Pushed for austerity, causing economic and political tensions in Southern Europe.

     • Assessment: Helped stabilize the Euro but at the cost of economic hardship in affected countries.

   • Ukraine Crisis (2014-Present)

     • Initially focused on diplomacy (Minsk Agreements).

     • After 2022, shifted to military support for Ukraine.

     • Assessment: Initially too lenient on Russia, but later took a stronger stance.

3. What has German foreign policy been in the period from 1990 to the present? What has it tried to achieve and how has it tried to accomplish these objectives?

3. European Integration and Stability

   • Germany has been the most influential force behind European unification and expansion.

   • Actively promoted the Euro as a common currency, despite initial resistance from some EU countries.

   • Played a leading role in stabilizing the Eurozone, particularly during the 2010s financial crisis.

   • Advocated for a strong, unified European foreign policy.

3. Multilateralism and Diplomacy

   • Germany strongly supports international institutions such as the EU, UN, NATO, and WTO.

   • Prefers diplomatic conflict resolution over military intervention.

   • Has played a mediating role in major global disputes, such as the Iran nuclear deal and Ukraine conflict.

4. Economic Diplomacy and Trade Relations

   • Germany is Europe’s largest economy and relies on international trade.

   • Maintains strong economic ties with the US, China, and Russia (though this has changed since 2022).

   • Export-driven policies have made Germany a major global economic player.

5. Military Caution and Limited Intervention

   • Due to its historical past, Germany has been reluctant to engage in military operations.

   • Focuses more on peacekeeping missions, humanitarian aid, and arms exports.

   • Avoids unilateral military action and prefers NATO-led missions.

Implementation Strategies

• EU Leadership: Germany has taken the lead in economic and diplomatic matters within the EU, often determining the bloc’s response to crises.

• Sanctions and Economic Pressure: Instead of military intervention, Germany has often preferred to impose economic sanctions, as seen in its response to Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014.

• Diplomatic Mediation: Germany has frequently positioned itself as a neutral broker, such as in the Iran nuclear negotiations and Minsk peace talks for Ukraine.

• Selective Military Engagement: Though historically hesitant, Germany has gradually increased its military role, such as in Afghanistan (non-combat support), Kosovo (NATO-led airstrikes), and, more recently, Ukraine (arms supplies).

4. What has Germany’s attitude been to the wars which have broken out since 1990? Has it got involved in them or not?

4. Gulf War (1991)

   • Provided financial aid - $6.6 billion but did not deploy troops.

   • Justified its non-involvement based on constitutional and historical reasons.

   • Criticized by the US for not taking a more active role.

4. Balkan Wars (1990s)

   • Initially hesitant to intervene, but later supported NATO’s Kosovo intervention in 1999.

   • Marked the first time Germany took part in combat operations since WWII.

   • Shifted its pacifist stance towards a more active European role.

5. Afghanistan War (2001-2021)

   • Sent troops as part of NATO but primarily in a non-combat role.

   • Focused on reconstruction and training Afghan security forces.

   • Public opinion remained divided, with growing opposition to the mission in later years.

6. Iraq War (2003)

   • Strongly opposed US-led intervention.

   • Argued the war lacked a UN mandate and preferred diplomatic solutions.

   • Led to tensions with the US but gained domestic and European support.

7. Libya (2011)

   • Abstained from the UN vote on military intervention.

   • Criticized for not supporting NATO action against Gaddafi.

   • Seen as prioritizing economic interests over humanitarian concerns.

8. Ukraine War (2014-Present)

   • Initially focused on diplomacy (Minsk Agreements) rather than military support.

   • Increased military aid after Russia’s full-scale invasion in 2022.

   • Marked a major policy shift, ending Germany’s long-standing reluctance to provide lethal weapons.

Overall Assessment

• Germany has generally preferred diplomacy over military action.

• Involvement in Kosovo and Afghanistan showed a shift toward more active participation in global security.

• The 2022 Ukraine War forced Germany to rethink its defense policy, leading to increased military spending and arms deliveries.

5. What has Germany’s attitude been to the EU and the Euro since 1990?

Germany’s Role in the EU

1. Driving Force Behind the Euro (1999)

   • Pushed for a single European currency to integrate economies and prevent future conflicts.

   • Convinced other EU nations to adopt the Euro, despite skepticism from some members.

   • Maintained strict fiscal policies, which caused tensions during the Eurozone crisis.

2. Eurozone Crisis (2010s)

   • Germany led bailout programs for struggling economies (Greece, Spain, Portugal).

   • Insisted on austerity measures, which were unpopular in Southern Europe.

   • Criticized for prioritizing financial stability over social and economic recovery.

3. Brexit (2016)

   • Strongly opposed the UK’s exit from the EU.

   • Worked to maintain EU unity post-Brexit.

   • Ensured that trade disruptions were minimized.

4. EU Expansion and Integration

   • Supported enlargement to include Eastern European nations (e.g., Poland, Hungary).

   • Hesitant about Turkey’s membership due to political and cultural concerns.

   • Advocated for closer EU defence and security cooperation.

Assessment

• Germany has been instrumental in shaping the EU’s economic and political direction.

• Its leadership in economic crises has been both praised and criticized.

• While strongly supporting EU unity, Germany has sometimes struggled with balancing national interests and broader European concerns.

6. What do you think of the role Germany has played in the crisis over Ukraine which has existed since 2014?

2014-2021: Diplomatic Approach

• After Russia annexed Crimea in 2014, Germany led EU sanctions against Russia.

  • Energy, finance, defence -> failures to comply with Minsk Agreements

• Brokered the Minsk Agreements to de-escalate conflict in Eastern Ukraine.

• Despite tensions, maintained strong economic ties with Russia (e.g., Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline).

2022-Present: Policy Shift After Russian Invasion

• Initially hesitant to provide military support to Ukraine.

• Faced criticism from allies for delays in sending weapons.

• Eventually approved arms deliveries, including Leopard tanks.

• Announced a historic €100 billion increase in defense spending, marking a major shift in German military policy.

Economic and Political Actions

• Imposed harsh sanctions on Russia alongside EU and US.

• Cut energy dependence on Russian gas, despite earlier reluctance.

• Strengthened NATO cooperation and supported Sweden and Finland’s NATO bids.

Criticism and Challenges

• Accused of being too slow and cautious in supporting Ukraine.

• Early dependence on Russian energy (Nord Stream 2) seen as a strategic mistake.

• Still faces domestic opposition to full military engagement.

Overall Assessment

• Germany’s early response was seen as weak, but it later took stronger actions.

• Its shift toward military aid marked a significant change in its foreign policy.

• While now firmly supporting Ukraine, its initial reluctance damaged its credibility among Western allies.