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Map Types
Reference Map: Shows political and physical boundaries (countries, rivers, cities). Example: Map of the U.S. interstate system.
Thematic Map: Focuses on a single topic or variable (population, literacy, rainfall). Example: Map of world GDP or climate regions.
Cartogram: Distorts shape/size based on data (value-based). Example: Population cartogram where India appears massive.
Choropleth Map: Uses shading or coloring to show data values across space. Darker areas = higher obesity rates.
Dot Distribution: Each dot represents a specific quantity (e.g., 1 dot = 100 people). Example: Map of corn farms across Iowa.
Graduated Symbol: Larger symbols = larger values. Example: Circles for population centers.
Isoline Map: Lines connect areas with equal value. Example: Topographic (elevation) or temperature maps.
Spatial Concepts and Patterns
Absolute Location: Exact coordinates (latitude/longitude). Example: Louisville = 38.2527^\circN, 85.7585^\circW
Relative Location: Location in context. Example: “north of Tennessee”
Spatial Patterns:
Clustering: Close together (cities).
Dispersed: Spread apart (rural farmlands).
Linear: Arranged in a line (houses on a road).
Sinuous: Wavy line pattern (river).
Random: No pattern (wildflowers).
Agglomeration: Grouped for purpose (Silicon Valley).
Uniform: Evenly spaced (suburban streets).
Map Projections
Mercator Projection:
Strengths: Preserves direction, good for ships.
Distortion: Size distortion near poles.
Use Case: Navigation.
Robinson Projection:
Strengths: Balanced between size/shape.
Distortion: Slight distortions everywhere.
Use Case: World maps.
Peters Projection:
Strengths: Accurate area, controversial shape.
Distortion: Shapes distorted.
Use Case: Shows global equality.
Polar Projection:
Strengths: Preserves distance from center.
Distortion: Shape/area distortion.
Use Case: Airline navigation, UN logo.
Geospatial Technologies
GIS:
Function: Collects/analyzes spatial data.
Examples: Mapping crime rates, deforestation, school sites.
Remote Sensing:
Function: Collects data without contact (e.g., satellites, drones).
Examples: Climate monitoring, natural disasters.
GPS:
Function: Uses satellites for precise location.
Examples: Google Maps, military, navigation.
Field Observation & Data Collection
Field Observation: Seeing spatial patterns on the ground. Example: Urban vs rural land use
Travel Narratives: First-hand accounts. Example: Marco Polo’s writings
Policy Documents: Laws, zoning codes. Example: How cities use land
Interviews: People describing their experiences. Example: Opinions on gentrification
Landscape Analysis: Visual reading of landscapes. Example: Identifying sequent occupancy
Photographic Analysis: Using images to analyze patterns. Example: Urban development or rural landscapes
The Power of Data
Vector Data: Points, lines, and polygons (cities, rivers).
Raster Data: Pixels and grids (elevation, satellite images).
Uses: Urban planning, census districts, market analysis, agriculture.
Scale of Analysis
Global: Entire world, generalized. Example: World maps of GDP
Regional: Continent or large area. Example: Latin America’s population growth
National: Within one country. Example: U.S. unemployment map
Local: City, neighborhood. Example: Louisville crime map
Different scales lead to different insights.
Regional Analysis
Formal Region: One or more shared characteristics. Example: The Corn Belt, a country, French-speaking region
Functional Region: Centered around a node or function. Example: Subway system, newspaper distribution area
Perceptual Region: Based on people’s sense of place. Example: “The South,” “The Middle East”
Human-Environment Interaction
Environmental Determinism: Nature controls human behavior. Example: Warm climate = laziness (discredited)
Possibilism: Humans adapt and modify the environment. Example: AC in deserts, irrigation in Egypt
Population Distribution
Population Distribution: The pattern of where people live.
Factors Influencing Distribution:
Climate: Temperate areas attract more people (e.g., Europe, eastern U.S.)
Water: River valleys (e.g., Nile, Ganges) support agriculture.
Landforms: Mountains discourage large populations (e.g., Himalayas).
Political Stability: Conflict areas have low population (e.g., Sudan).
Economic Activity: Cities = jobs, opportunities (e.g., Shanghai).
Cultural/Historical: Old cultural hearths still have high pop. (e.g., Mesopotamia).
Major Population Clusters:
East Asia (China, Japan, Korea)
South Asia (India, Pakistan)
Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Philippines)
Europe
West Africa (especially Nigeria)
Northeastern U.S.
Population Density
Population Density: Measurement of people per unit of land.
Arithmetic Density:
Formula: total population / total land area
Example: Egypt = 7 people/km^2, but not useful since most land is desert.
Physiological Density:
Formula: total population / arable (farmable) land
Better measure of pressure on land.
Example: Egypt = 3,900 people/km^2 arable land.
Agricultural Density:
Formula: number of farmers / arable land
High in LDCs → more subsistence farming
Low in MDCs → mechanized commercial agriculture
Consequences of Population Distribution
Social: Aging rural populations, urban overcrowding, disease spread in cities
Economic: Job competition, infrastructure strain, growing informal sectors (slums)
Environmental: Overfarming, water shortages, deforestation, pollution
Carrying Capacity: Maximum population an area can support sustainably.
Population Pyramids (Age-Sex Structures)
Population Pyramid: A bar graph showing age distribution by sex.
Key Components:
Males on the left, females on the right
Vertical axis = age cohorts (e.g., 0–4, 5–9)
Horizontal axis = population size or %
Types of Pyramids:
Expansive (Triangle): High birth rate, short life expectancy (e.g., Nigeria)
Constrictive (Beehive): Aging population, low birth rate (e.g., Japan)
Stationary (Rectangle): Balanced, stable population (e.g., U.S.)
Use Cases:
Governments can predict need for schools, retirement services, etc.
Helps determine growth stage and development level
Population Dynamics
Fertility
Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Births per 1,000 people per year
Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Avg. children per woman
High: Niger (6.6)
Low: Japan (1.3)
Mortality
Crude Death Rate (CDR): Deaths per 1,000 people per year
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): Deaths under age 1 per 1,000 births
Natural Increase & Migration
Rate of Natural Increase (RNI): (CBR - CDR) / 10
Doubling Time: 71 / RNI
Used to estimate population doubling speed
Demographic Transition Model (DTM)
DTM: Model showing population growth over time based on birth and death rates.
Stage 1: High CBR, High CDR, Low RNI, No current examples. Pre-industrial (disease, famine)
Stage 2: High CBR, Falls Fast CDR, High RNI, Nigeria, Egypt. Medical advances, sanitation
Stage 3: Falling CBR, Falling CDR, Moderate RNI, India, Mexico. Urbanization, family planning
Stage 4: Low CBR, Low CDR, Stable RNI, U.S., France. Women’s education, family control
Stage 5: Very Low CBR, Low CDR, Negative RNI, Japan, Germany. Shrinking population, aging society
Limitations: Doesn’t account for migration, doesn’t fit all developing countries.
Epidemiological Transition Model (ETM)
ETM: Describes changing causes of death as countries develop.
Stage 1: Famine, plague. Examples: Black Death, parasitic infections
Stage 2: Receding pandemics. Examples: Cholera, malaria
Stage 3: Chronic diseases. Examples: Heart disease, cancer
Stage 4: Delayed degenerative. Examples: Alzheimer’s, diabetes
Stage 5: Reemerging infectious. Examples: Superbugs, COVID-19
Malthusian Theory & Critics
Malthusian Theory (1798)
Population grows geometrically, food arithmetically.
Result: famine, conflict, environmental collapse
Positive Checks: Disease, war, famine
Preventive Checks: Abstinence, delayed marriage
J-Curve: Malthus believed population would rise uncontrollably.
Critics:
Ester Boserup: Population pressure stimulates innovation
Cornucopians: Technology can overcome limits (e.g., GMOs)
Carrying Capacity: Still used as a modern resource ceiling
Population Policies
Pro-Natalist: Encourage births. Examples: France (cash incentives), Japan
Anti-Natalist: Reduce births. Examples: China’s One-Child Policy, India
Eugenic: Favor specific group. Example: Nazi Germany
Note: Some countries reverse policies over time (e.g., South Korea went from anti- to pro-natalist).
Women & Demographic Change
Education: Higher education = lower TFR
Workforce: More career women = fewer children
Politics: Low female political participation → lower development
Health: Better maternal care → lower IMR, longer life expectancy
Aging Populations
Causes: Lower birth rates, better health care
Effects:
Labor shortages
Greater healthcare costs
Higher dependency ratios
Policy changes (retirement age, immigration)
Solutions:
Immigration
Pro-natalist policies
Elderly workforce participation
Examples:
Japan: 40% population over 65 by 2050
“Blue Zones”: Okinawa (Japan), Loma Linda (CA)
Migration Concepts
Migration: Long-term relocation
Emigration: Leaving a place
Immigration: Entering a place
Push Factors: Cause people to leave (war, famine)
Pull Factors: Attract people (jobs, safety)
Voluntary Migration: Migrant chooses to move
Forced Migration: No choice (e.g., slavery, conflict)
Asylum: Legal protection for refugees fleeing danger
Effects of Migration
Unauthorized Immigrants: Enter or stay without legal permission
Brain Drain: Loss of educated workers from LDCs
Transnationalism: Strong ties between origin and destination
Remittances: Money sent home → boosts home country economy
Introduction to Culture
Culture: A shared set of practices, technologies, attitudes, and behaviors among a group of people.
Types of Culture:
Folk Culture: Small, homogeneous, rural, isolated. Transmitted slowly via relocation diffusion. Example: Amish communities, traditional African tribes.
Popular Culture: Large, heterogeneous, urban, globalized. Spreads quickly via hierarchical or contagious diffusion. Example: Fast food, fashion, music (K-pop, hip-hop).
Cultural Traits, Complexes, Systems
Cultural Trait: A single aspect of culture (e.g., bowing in Japan).
Cultural Complex: Group of interrelated traits (e.g., American football = stadiums, uniforms, tailgates).
Cultural System: Combination of traits and complexes forming a region’s cultural identity.
Cultural Landscapes & Sequent Occupancy
Cultural Landscape: Physical imprint of human activity on the environment.
Examples:
Language on signs
Religious buildings (churches, mosques)
Agricultural patterns
Roads, schools, parks
Sequent Occupancy: Layers of imprints left by different groups over time. Example: Istanbul = Roman → Byzantine → Ottoman → Turkish influences.
Types of Diffusion
Relocation: Physical movement of people. Example: Italians bringing pizza to U.S.
Contagious: Spreads rapidly and widely. Example: Memes, viral videos
Hierarchical: From influential people/places to others. Example: Fashion from Paris, K-pop from Seoul
Stimulus: Idea spreads but changes. Example: McDonald’s India (no beef)
Reverse Hierarchical: From lower classes to elites. Example: Tattoos, streetwear culture
Historical Diffusion
Colonialism: Dominant power controls a foreign territory.
Imperialism: Political, economic, or cultural control over foreign regions.
Columbian Exchange: Transfer of plants, animals, technology, and disease between Old World and New World.
Effects:
Languages spread (Spanish in Latin America)
Religions spread (Christianity globally)
Foods introduced (potatoes to Europe, sugar to Caribbean)
Contemporary Diffusion
Globalization: Increasing interconnectedness across the globe.
Time-Space Compression: Technology makes far places seem closer.
Cultural Convergence: Cultures become more alike.
Cultural Divergence: Cultures become more distinct due to isolation or conflict.
Language
Language: A system of communication based on symbols with shared meaning.
Language Family: Group of languages with a shared distant origin. Examples: Indo-European (English, Hindi), Sino-Tibetan (Mandarin)
Lingua Franca: Common language for communication between speakers of different native languages. Example: English, Swahili, Arabic
Creole: A mix of colonizer’s and native language. Example: Haitian Creole (French + African languages)
Isolated Language: Unrelated to any other language family. Example: Basque
Religion
Christianity: Universalizing, Hearth: Middle East. Traits: Churches, crosses, Sunday worship
Islam: Universalizing, Hearth: Mecca (Saudi Arabia). Traits: Mosques, Arabic, 5 Pillars
Judaism: Ethnic, Hearth: Israel. Traits: Synagogues, Star of David, Hebrew
Hinduism: Ethnic, Hearth: India. Traits: Temples, Ganges River, many deities
Buddhism: Universalizing, Hearth: India/Nepal. Traits: Temples, meditation, Four Noble Truths
Sikhism: Universalizing, Hearth: Punjab (India). Traits: Gurdwaras, Khanda symbol, monotheism
Ethnic Religion: Tied to one group/place (e.g., Hinduism, Judaism)
Universalizing Religion: Seeks converts everywhere (e.g., Christianity, Islam)
Religion in the Cultural Landscape
Architecture: Churches (steeples), Mosques (domes/minarets), Temples
Sacred Sites: Mecca (Islam), Jerusalem (Christianity, Judaism, Islam), Ganges River (Hinduism), Bodh Gaya (Buddhism)
Sequent Occupancy Example: Hagia Sophia in Istanbul — Christian church → mosque → museum → mosque again.
Ethnocentrism vs Cultural Relativism
Ethnocentrism: Judging another culture by your own standards. Example: “They’re weird for eating bugs”
Cultural Relativism: Understanding a culture by its own terms. Example: Respecting cultural food preferences
Globalization & Culture
Homogenization: Cultures becoming more alike. Example: McDonald’s in 100+ countries
Placelessness: Loss of uniqueness in the landscape. Example: Every suburb looks the same
Americanization: U.S. culture spreading globally. Example: Hollywood films, jeans
Glocalization: Global ideas adapted to local culture. Example: McDonald’s India = Chicken Maharaja
Neolocalism: Effort to revive local culture. Example: Farmer’s markets, craft breweries
Introduction to Political Geography
Political Geography: Study of how humans define and manage space on Earth through political boundaries, power, and governance.
State:
Defined territory
Permanent population
Government
Recognized by other states
Example: France, Japan
Nation:
Group of people with shared cultural traits (language, religion, ethnicity) and historical attachment to a homeland
Example: Kurds, Japanese
Nation-State:
Borders of a nation match the borders of a state
Example: Japan, Iceland
Stateless Nation:
A cultural group without its own state
Example: Palestinians, Kurds
Multinational State:
A state with multiple cultural groups
Example: Canada, U.K.
Multi-State Nation:
A cultural group spread across multiple states
Example: Koreans in North & South Korea
Origins of Political Boundaries
Types of Boundaries:
Defined: Legally documented (treaty)
Delimited: Drawn on a map
Demarcated: Marked on the ground (walls, fences)
Administered: Controlled and managed by government
Types of Political Boundaries
Geometric: Straight lines, often based on latitude/longitude. Example: U.S.-Canada border (49th parallel)
Physical/Natural: Based on landforms. Example: Rio Grande (U.S.-Mexico), Himalayas
Cultural: Based on language, religion, or ethnicity. Example: India-Pakistan (religion)
Relic: No longer functions but still visible. Example: Berlin Wall, Great Wall of China
Subsequent: Drawn after settlement based on cultural groups. Example: Northern Ireland/Ireland
Antecedent: Existed before large human settlement. Example: Malaysia/Indonesia (Borneo)
Superimposed: Drawn by outsiders, ignoring existing cultures. Example: African borders after colonization
Consequent: Drawn to accommodate cultural differences. Example: India/Pakistan
Maritime Boundaries (Law of the Sea)
Territorial Sea: 12 nautical miles from shore — full sovereignty
Contiguous Zone: 12–24 nautical miles — customs, immigration
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): 200 nautical miles — rights to resources
High Seas: Beyond EEZ — open to all states
Disputes: South China Sea (China, Vietnam, Philippines, etc.)
Internal Boundaries
Federal States: Power shared between central and regional governments. Example: U.S., Canada, Germany
Unitary States: Centralized government control. Example: France, China
Electoral Boundaries:
Redrawn every 10 years (census)
Reapportionment: Redistributing seats in legislature
Redistricting: Redrawing boundaries to reflect population changes
Gerrymandering: Redistricting to benefit one party or group
Types: Wasted vote, excess vote, stacked vote
Political Power & Territoriality
Territoriality: Connection between people and their control over a space
Sovereignty: A state’s full control over its internal and foreign affairs
Neocolonialism: Indirect control of developing countries through economic or political pressures. Example: Africa’s continued economic dependency on former European powers
Devolution
Devolution: Transfer of power from central government to regional governments
Causes:
Ethnic separatism (e.g., Basques in Spain)
Economic inequality (e.g., Catalonia)
Terrorism (e.g., Northern Ireland in the 1990s)
Cultural differences (e.g., Quebec)
Examples:
U.K. → Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland have devolved powers
Belgium → Flanders and Wallonia
Nigeria → Ethnic and religious divisions
Balkanization: Violent breakup of a state along ethnic lines. Example: Yugoslavia in the 1990s
Irredentism: When a country tries to reclaim territory inhabited by people with similar ethnicity. Example: Russia and Crimea
Supranationalism
Supranational Organization: An alliance involving 3+ countries for mutual benefit (political, economic, military)
UN: Focus: Political, Examples: Peacekeeping, humanitarian aid
EU: Focus: Economic, Examples: Common currency (Euro), open borders
NATO: Focus: Military, Examples: U.S., Europe mutual defense
ASEAN: Focus: Economic, Examples: Southeast Asian cooperation
AU: Focus: Political, Examples: African unity and development
Benefits:
Shared resources, trade, peacekeeping, power
Challenges:
Loss of sovereignty, unequal benefits
Centripetal vs Centrifugal Forces
Centripetal: Unifies a state. Examples: Shared language, religion, disaster aid
Centrifugal: Divides a state. Examples: Ethnic conflict, uneven development
Shatterbelt Regions
Shatterbelt: A region caught between stronger cultural or political forces, often leading to conflict.
Examples:
Eastern Europe (Cold War)
Caucasus (Russia, Armenia, Georgia)
Middle East
Origins of Agriculture
First Agricultural Revolution (Neolithic Revolution)
Around 10,000 years ago
Shift from hunting/gathering → permanent farming
Major hearths: Fertile Crescent, Indus Valley, China, Mesoamerica, Andes
Led to:
Domestication of plants/animals
Settlements
Early civilizations
Columbian Exchange
Exchange of crops, animals, people, diseases between Old World and New World after 1492
Examples:
Americas → Europe: potatoes, maize
Europe → Americas: horses, wheat, diseases
Second Agricultural Revolution
1700s–1800s (Industrial Revolution era)
Originated in Europe
Mechanization of agriculture: plows, seed drills
Enclosure Movement: consolidated land = more efficient farming
Effects:
Surplus food → population boom
Urbanization → labor shift to factories
Green Revolution (Third Agricultural Revolution)
Timeframe: 1940s–1970s (mainly in LDCs)
Features:
High-yield crops (e.g., IR8 rice, wheat)
Synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, mechanization
Irrigation expansion
Impacts:
Positive: More food, less famine in India, Mexico
Negative: Environmental damage, water shortages, debt for poor farmers, reduced biodiversity
Agricultural Types (By Intensity)
Intensive: High labor/capital on small land area. Example: Rice farming in SE Asia
Extensive: Low labor, large land area. Example: Ranching in Australia
Subsistence Agriculture: Grown for consumption (LDCs)
Commercial Agriculture: Grown to sell (MDCs)
Major Agricultural Types by Region
Pastoral Nomadism: Herding animals across land, Regions: North Africa, Central Asia
Shifting Cultivation: Slash-and-burn in tropical forests, Regions: Amazon Basin, SE Asia
Plantation Agriculture: Cash crops for export, often colonial legacy, Regions: Latin America, Africa, Southeast Asia
Mixed Crop & Livestock: Crops fed to animals, animals used for income, Regions: Midwest U.S., Europe
Dairying: Milk production for urban markets, Regions: NE U.S., Europe
Grain Farming: Wheat, corn, barley, Regions: U.S. Plains, Russia, Canada
Mediterranean: Olives, grapes, citrus, dry summer climate, Regions: California, Mediterranean Basin
Truck Farming: Fruits/vegetables for sale (aka commercial gardening), Regions: U.S. Southeast, Mexico
Livestock Ranching: Grazing animals on large land areas, Regions: Argentina, U.S. West, Australia
Settlement Patterns & Land Survey Systems
Clustered: Buildings grouped together. Example: New England villages
Dispersed: Buildings spread out. Example: U.S. Midwest
Linear: Buildings along roads/rivers. Example: French Canada
Land Survey Systems:
Metes and Bounds: Natural features define boundaries (Eastern U.S.)
Township and Range: Grid system with square plots (Midwest U.S.)
Long Lot: Long, narrow plots with river/road access (French- influenced areas)
Von Thünen Model (1826)
Model of Agricultural Land Use surrounding a central market city
Assumptions:
Flat land, uniform soil, no roads
Farmers act to maximize profit
Ring 1: Market Gardening, Dairying, Why? Perishable goods, expensive to transport
Ring 2: Forests, Why? Heavy to transport (firewood)
Ring 3: Grains & Field Crops, Why? Lightweight, last longer
Ring 4: Livestock Ranching, Why? Animals walk to market
Reality: Model doesn’t always apply today due to refrigeration, transportation, and global markets.
Global Agricultural Systems
Commodity Chains: Steps in the production and delivery of a product from farm to table. Example: Coffee — grown in Ethiopia, roasted in Italy, sold in U.S.
Agribusiness: Integration of farming into large food production industries. Includes: Seed suppliers, distributors, grocery chains (e.g., Tyson, Monsanto)
Monoculture: Growing one crop → efficiency but risk of disease/pests. Example: Bananas, corn, palm oil
Consequences of Agricultural Practices
Desertification: Overgrazing or overfarming → desert spread
Soil Degradation: Nutrient loss from overuse
Water Scarcity: Irrigation depletion in dry regions
Chemical Pollution: Fertilizers/pesticides → ecosystem damage
Loss of Biodiversity: GMOs, monoculture reduce plant/animal diversity
Sustainability in Agriculture
Organic Farming: No synthetic chemicals, more natural practices
Terracing: Steps cut into hills to prevent erosion (e.g., rice)
Agroforestry: Combining trees and crops to improve sustainability
Crop Rotation: Changing crops annually to preserve soil health
No-Till Farming: Reduces soil disruption to maintain structure
Gender Roles in Agriculture
In many LDCs, women are essential to agricultural labor, especially in subsistence farming.
In MDCs, mechanization reduced reliance on manual labor.
Barriers for women: Land ownership, credit access, education. Example: In Sub-Saharan Africa, women grow most of the food but own very little land.
Urbanization and Cities
Urbanization: Growth in the percentage and number of people living in urban areas.
Site: Physical characteristics of a location. Example: New York City = natural harbor
Situation: Location relative to other places. Example: Singapore = key global port between India and China
Urban Hearths: First cities (Mesopotamia, Nile River Valley, Indus Valley, Huang He, Mesoamerica)
Suburbanization: Growth of areas on the fringes of cities. Causes: Highways, cars, affordable housing
Exurbanization: People move even farther out from suburbs to rural areas
Edge Cities: Suburban business hubs with shopping, offices, hotels. Example: Tysons Corner (Virginia), Irvine (California)
Models of Urban Structure (U.S.-based)
Concentric Zone Model (Burgess, 1920s)
Rings around CBD
Center = CBD → transition zone → working-class homes → better residences → commuter zone
Sector Model (Hoyt, 1939)
City develops in sectors or wedges, not rings
Transportation routes (railroads, highways) shape growth
Wealthy live in one wedge, industry in another
Multiple Nuclei Model (Harris & Ullman, 1945)
Cities have multiple centers (“nuclei”) for activities
Example: one area for universities, another for business
Galactic City Model (Peripheral Model)
Modern city with central CBD surrounded by suburban business centers, edge cities, beltways
Example: Washington, D.C. with edge cities like Tyson’s Corner
Urban Models (Global)
Latin American City Model (Griffin-Ford Model)
CBD with a spine (boulevard) leading to wealthy sector
Disamenity zones = poorest housing near landfills or dangerous zones
Example: Mexico City, São Paulo
Southeast Asian City Model (McGee Model)
No strong CBD; port is economic hub
Growth spreads from port through zones of industry, business
Example: Jakarta, Manila
African City Model
3 CBDs: colonial, traditional, and open-air market
Ethnic neighborhoods, informal housing on outskirts
Example: Nairobi, Lagos
Urban Systems and Hierarchies
Central Place Theory (Christaller, 1933)
Explains city distribution and market areas (hexagonal pattern)
Central Place: A market center
Range: Maximum distance people will travel for a good/service
Threshold: Minimum number of people required to support a service
Urban Hierarchy (largest to smallest):
Megalopolis → Metropolitan Area → City → Town → Village → Hamlet
Rank-Size Rule: 2nd largest city = ½ population of the largest; applies in developed countries
Primate City Rule: Largest city has disproportionate size and importance. Example: Paris, Bangkok, London
Urban Infrastructure & Planning
Infrastructure: Basic systems needed for operation (roads, water, power)
Greenbelt: Ring of open space around a city to limit sprawl. Example: London’s greenbelt
Smart Growth: Urban planning that focuses on sustainability and transit. Mixed-use zoning, pedestrian-friendly, reduced reliance on cars
New Urbanism: Return to walkable neighborhoods with diverse housing and jobs. Example: Seaside, Florida; Celebration, Florida
Challenges in Cities
Zoning: Laws defining land use types (residential, industrial)
Urban Sprawl: Spread of urban development over rural land
Traffic Congestion: Due to car dependency, poor mass transit
Gentrification: Wealthier people renovate urban neighborhoods → raises rent, displaces locals
Redlining: Banks deny loans to minority neighborhoods (now illegal)
Blockbusting: Realtors cause panic selling based on racial fear (historic practice)
Disamenity Zones: Poor areas lacking public services or infrastructure
Housing and Urban Problems
Squatter Settlements (Slums):
Unplanned, informal housing often on city outskirts
Lack services (water, electricity)
Common in LDCs (e.g., favelas in Brazil, bustees in India)
Filtering: Large homes in older neighborhoods turned into multi-family apartments → decline in property value
Inclusionary Zoning: Requires affordable housing units in new developments
Sustainable Cities
Mass Transit Expansion: Goal: Reduce cars/emissions, Example: Subways, light rail (NYC, Tokyo)
Mixed-Use Development: Goal: Combine housing, business, retail, Example: Walkable urban villages
Green Infrastructure: Goal: Eco-friendly design, Example: Green roofs, bike lanes, solar panels
Urban Farming: Goal: Increase local food production, Example: Rooftop gardens, Detroit urban gardens
Economic Sectors
Primary: Extracting natural resources. Examples: Farming, fishing, mining
Secondary: Manufacturing raw materials into products. Examples: Factories, food processing
Tertiary: Providing services. Examples: Teachers, doctors, retail
Quaternary: Knowledge-based services. Examples: Research, IT, finance
Quinary: High-level decision making. Examples: CEOs, government officials
Trend: As countries develop, workers move from primary → secondary → tertiary+.
Development Indicators
GDP: Total value of goods/services in a country. Example: U.S. GDP > $$20 trillion
GNI: GDP + money from abroad. Includes remittances
GNI per capita: Avg. income per person. High in Norway, low in Chad
HDI (Human Development Index): Life expectancy, education, GNI. Scale 0–1 (closer to 1 = more developed)
Gender Inequality Index (GII): Gap between men and women. Lower = better equality
Global North/South Divide
Core: MDCs — high income, tech, education. Examples: U.S., Germany, Japan
Semi-Periphery: Emerging economies. Examples: China, Brazil, India
Periphery: Raw materials bad economy
Examples: Bolivia