
The Appendicular Skeleton
Fig. 5.8, p. 146
- 126 bones of the limbs (appendages), the pectoral girdle, and the
pelvic girdle - Girdles attach the limbs to the axial skeleton
The Shoulder (Pectoral) Girdle-Clavicle (Fig. 5.23(a-b), p.159
- The collarbone
- Holds the arm away from the upper thorax and helps prevent shoulder dislocation
- When the clavicle is broken, the shoulder region caves in medially
- Attaches medially at the manubrium (at the sternal end) and laterally at the scapula (helping to form the shoulder joint)
- Shoulder blades
- Triangular; “wings” because they flare out when we move arms posteriorly
- Flattened body with 2 important processes:
- Acromion : enlarged end of the spine of the scapula; connects with the clavicle laterally at the acromioclavicular joint
- Coracoid process: break-like; points over the top of the shoulder and anchors some of the muscles of the arm
Other Important Markings of the Scapula
Fig. 5.23 (c-d), p.159
- Suprascapular notch: just medial to coracoid process; nerve passageway
Not directly connected to axial skeleton— held in place by trunk muscles- 3 borders: superior, medial (vertebral), and lateral (axillary)
- 3 angles: superior, medial, and inferior
- Glenoid cavity: in the lateral angle; shallow socket that receives the head of the arm bone.
Shoulder Girdle:
Allows Wide Range of Motion
- Very light
- Attaches to axial skeleton at only one point– the sternoclavicular joint
- Loose attachment of the scapula allows it to slide back and forth against the thorax as muscles move
- Glenoid cavity is shallow and poorly reinforced by ligaments
- PROBLEM: easily dislocated
Arm: Humerus (long bone) (I)
Fig. 5.24 (a-b), p.160
- Proximal end: rounded head that fits into shallow glenoid cavity
- Anatomical neck: immediately inferior to proximal head; slight constriction
- Greater & lesser tubercles: anterolateral to head; sites of muscle attachment
- Separated by the intertubercular sulcus
- Surgical neck: just distal to tubercles; most frequently fractured area of the humerus
Arm: Humerus (long bone) (II)
Fig.5.24 (a-b), p.160
- Deltoid tuberosity: roughed area on the midpoint of shaft;l deltoid attaches
- Radial groove: runs obliquely down posterior of shaft; radial nerve fits here
- Trochlea: spool-like at the medial-distal end; articulates with bones of the forearm
- Capitulum: ball-like at the lateral-distal end; articulated with bones of the forearm
- Coronoid (anterior) & Olecranon (posterior) Fossa: above trochlea: allow processes of the ulna to move freely
- Flanked by medial & lateral epicondyles
Forearm: Radius (I)
Figure. 5.24(c), p. 160
- Lateral bone
- When the palm faces backward, the distal end of the radius becomes medial to the ulna
- Articulates proximally and distally with the ulna at the radioulnar joints
- Connected along the length with the ulna with flexible
interosseous membrane - Styloid process at the distal end
Forearm: Radius (II)
Fig. 5.24(c), p.160
- Disc-shaped head forms joint with the capitulum of the humerus
- Radial tuberosity: just below the head; bicep muscle attaches
Forearm: Ulna
Fig. 5.24(c), p.160
- Medial bone
- Coronoid process (anterior) & olecranon(posterior): at the proximal end; grip the trochlea of the numerous ina pliers-like
grip - These two processes are separated by the trochlear notch
Hand
Fig. 5.25, p.161q
- Eight carpal bones (2 irregular rows of 4 bones each); form the carpus (wrist)
- Movement among them is restricted by ligaments
- Metcarpals: palm
- Numbered 1 to 5 (thumb is 1, pinky is 5)
- In a fist, the heads become the knuckles
- Phalanges: fingers
- 3 bones in each finger (proximal, middle, distal); only 2 in thumb (proximal, distal)
Pelvic Girdle
Fig. 5.26, p.162
- Formed by 2 coxal bones (a.k.a ossa coxae or the hip bones) and the sacrum
- The pelvic girdle + the coccyx= the bony pelvis
Basics of the pelvic girdle
- Bones are large and heavy; securely attached to axial skeleton by the sacral attachment to the lowest lumbar vertebra
- Thigh bones securely attached to the girdle by deep sockets and reinforced by ligament
- Most important job: bears weight of upper body
- Reproductive organs, urinary bladder, and large intestine lie within pelvis
Hip Bones: Fusion of 3 Bones Ilium (Fig. 5.26, p. 162)
- Ilium: large & flaring; connected posteriorly to the sacrum at the sacroiliac joint
- Alae: wing-like portion (when you rest your hands on your hips)
- Iliac crest: upper edge of an ala; important landmark for intermuscular injections
- Anterior superior iliac spine: anterior end
- Posterior superior iliac spine: posterior end
- Small inferior spines below
Hip Bones: Fusion of 3 Bones
Ischium (Fig. 5.26, p. 162)
- Ischium: forms most inferior part of coxal bone; “sit down bone”
- Ischial tuberosity: roughened area that receives body weight when sitting
- Ischial spine: superior to tuberosity; important landmark (narrows outlet through pelvis through which the baby passes)
- Greater sciatic notch: allows blood vessels and sciatic nerve to pass posteriorly to thigh (buttock injections should be far from this area!!!)
Hip Bones: Fusion of 3 Bones
Pubis (Fig. 5.26, p.162)
- Pubis: most anterior portion of coxal bone
- Obturator foramen: allows blood vessels and nerves to pass to the anterior part of thigh
- A bone of bar from the rami of the pubis anteriorly & ischium posteriorly surrounds this
- Pubic symphysis: fusion of both pubic bones, forming this cartilaginous joint
Hip Bones: Fusion of 3 Bones
Acetabulum (Fig. 5.26, p.162)
- Deep socket that is the fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis
- Receives the head of the thigh bone (femur)
Two Pelvic Regions
Fig. 5.26, p. 162
- False pelvis: superior to true pelvis; medial to flaring ilia
- True pelvis: inferior to flaring ilia; surrounded by bone
- For women, the true pelvis MUST be large enough for the baby’s head to pass through
- The dimensions of the outlet (inferior) and inlet (superior) must be carefully measured
Chracteristics of the FEMALE
pelvis (Fig. 5.26 (c), p.162)
- Inlet is larger & more circular
- Shallower, and the bones are lighter and thinner
- Ilia flare more laterally
- Sacrum is shorter & less curved
- Ischial spines are shorter and father apart (creating larger outlet)
- Pubic arch is more rounded (the pubic arch is greater)
Foot
Fig. 5.28, p.165
- Two functions: supports body weight and acts as a lever to propel our
bodies as we walk or run - Tarsus: posterior of foot; 7 tarsal bones
- 2 largest carry most of the body weight: the calcaneus (heelbone) and talus (lied between the tibia and calcaneus)
- Metatarsals: sole of the foot; 5 bones
- Phalanges: toes; 14 bones
- All toes have 3 bones, except the big toe (2 bones)
Arches of the Foot
Fig. 5.29, p.165
- Bones are arranged to form 3 arches
- 2 arches are longitudinal (one medial and one lateral), and 2 arch is transverse
- The ligaments and tendons in the foot help secure the foot bones, but allow a certain amount of give or springiness
- Weak arches are referred to as “fallen arches” or “flat feet”
Joints
P.165-173
Joints (Articulations)
- Sites where 2 or more bones meet
- Hyoid bone-only unarticulated bone in body
- Two functions:
- Hold bones in place
- Give rigid skeleton mobility
- Two ways joints are classified:
- Functionally
- Structurally
Funtional Classifications of Joints
- Synarthroses: immovable
- Mostly restricted to axial skeleton
- Amphiarthroses: slightly movable
- Mostly restricted to axial skeleton
- Diarthroses: freely movable
- Predominate in the limbs
Structural Classification of Joints
Fig. 5.30, p.168 & Table 5.3, p.169
- Fibrious: fibrous tissue connects bones
- Generally immovable (synarthroses)
- Cartilaginous: cartilage connects bones
- Generally slightly movable (amphiarthroses)
- Synovial: joint cavity connects bones
- Generally freely movable (diarthroses)
Fibrous Joints
- United by fibrous tissue
- Eg. Sutures in the skull (Fig. 5.30(a), p.168)
- Irregular edges interlock and are bound by connective tissue fibers
- Syndesmoses- fibers connecting bones are longer than in sutures; more “give” to the joint
Eg. Joint connecting the distal end of the tibia and fibula
Cartilaginous Joints
- Bone ends are connected by fibrocartilage
- Eg. of the slightly movable (amphiarthrotic) joints: pubis symphysis and intervertebral joints (Fif. 5.30 (e-d), p.168)
- Syndchondroses: immovable cartilaginous joints (synarthrotic)
- Eg. Epiphyseal plates and joints between first ribs & sternum (Fig. 5.30 (c), p.168)
Synovial Joints
Fig. 5.30 (f-h), p. 168
- Bones articulate at a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid; eg. Limbs
- 4 characteristics:
- Articular (hyaline) cartilage covers bone ends
- Joint surfaces enclosed by sleeves of fibrous c.t. (articular capsule), lined with a smooth synovial membrane
- Articular capsule encloses joint vanity, which contains lubricating synovial fluid
- Fibrous layer of capsule reinforced by ligaments
Bursae & Tendon Sheaths
- Bags of lubricant closely associated with synovial joints (Fig. 5.32, p. 170)
- Act like ball bearings to reduce friction
- Bursae: flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes and containing a thin film of synovial fluid
- Common where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together
- Tendon sheaths: an elongated bursa; wrapped around a tendon subject to friction
Homeostatic Imbalance:
Dislocation
- The bone is forced out of its normal position in the joint cavity
- Reduction: process of returning the bone to its proper position
- Should ALWAYS be done by a physician!!!
Homeostatic Imbalance
Bursitis&Sprain
- Bursitis: “water on the knee”
- Inflammation of bursae or synovial membranes in the patellar area
- Sprain: Inflammation (or possible tearing) of the ligaments or tendons
- Causes swelling
- Slow to heal because tendons and ligaments are poorly vascularized
Homeostatic Imbalance:
Arthritis
- Describe over 100 inflammatory or degenerative diseases that affect the joints
- Most widespread crippling disease in the U>|S
- All forms start with: pain, stiffness, & swelling of the joints
- Different types of arthritis have different long-lasting effects
- Acute forms: bacterial infections; treat with antibiotics
- Synovial membrane thicken and fluid decreases=increased friction=PAIN
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