The Hundred Years' War and the Rise of National Sentiment
The Late Middle Ages saw almost unprecedented calamity: war, plague, and schism shaping political, social, and ecclesiastical life.
The Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) pitted England against France in a struggle that blended dynastic claims with emerging national consciousness.
Major contextual factors:
Gunpowder and heavy artillery intensified warfare in its later stages.
The Black Death (1348–1350) decimated populations, reshaping social structures and beliefs.
The Great Schism (1378–1417) produced competing papal claimants and undermined church authority.
Turkish advance toward Constantinople (1453) symbolized broader geopolitical collapse perceived in Europe.
Intellectual and political shifts:
Marsilius of Padua, William of Ockham, and Lorenzo Valla offered lasting critiques of medieval ideas about God, humankind, and society.
Secular rulers increasingly relied on parliaments and councils to limit papal temporal power.
The notion—rooted in Roman law—that a secular ruler is accountable to the body governed by law—took hold, echoing Magna Carta ideas and influencing conciliarists who argued for church council supremacy over the pope.
Overall arc: while politics sought wiser leadership, nature pressed mercy, and the church faltered in its mandate.
The Causes of the War
The war began in May 1337, lasting until October 1453.
Edward III (r. 1327–1377), king of England and grandson of Philip the Fair, asserted a claim to the French throne after Charles IV (r. 1322–1328) died without a male heir.
French response: Charles IV’s cousin Philip VI of Valois (r. 1328–1350) was chosen, initiating a new French dynasty.
Key structural triggers:
Edward III was technically a vassal of the French king, holding French fiefs; English possessions in France threatened centralized royal policy.
Control over Flanders (a French fief with strong English wool dependencies) caused tension.
Long-standing English–French prejudice and reciprocal hostility further fueled conflict.
The war was as much about national identity as about territory.
France vs. England: Relative Strengths and Weaknesses
France had roughly three times the population of England and greater wealth, and fought on its own soil.
Yet France suffered early defeats (until 1415) due to internal disunity and feudal fragmentation.
French financial strain: currency depreciation and heavy borrowing from Italian bankers worsened internal tensions; 1355 Estates General represented townspeople and nobles, levying taxes but also expanding regional rights, deepening divisions.
English military advantage: disciplined infantry and formidable longbowmen (six arrows per minute; capable of piercing knightly armor at two hundred yards).
French leadership failures: the French crown suffered from weak leadership and divided command.
Progress of the War
The war unfolded in three major stages, each ending with a decisive victory for one side.
Stage 1 (Edward III’s reign):.
1340: English victory at the Bay of Sluys; English alliance with Ghent (Flanders).
1346: English advances in Normandy; victory at Crécy; Calais captured.
1347: Black Death slows campaigns; truce emerges.
1356: English victory at Poitiers; French king John II the Good captured.
Political consequences: France fragmented; Estates General gains power under Etienne Marcel, pushing for rights similar to English Magna Carta, but the French Estates General was too divided to govern effectively.
1355–1360: French attempts to raise funds destabilize internal order; 1360 Peace of Brétigny recognizes English holdings in France and Edward III’s sovereignty over English territories in France, with a ransom for John II.
Stage 2 (Post-Edward III to death of Edward III): continued French resistance and English retreats; Edward III’s death; internal English turmoil (revolts under Richard II, 1381).
Stage 3 (Henry V’s reign and the rise of Joan of Arc):
1415: English victory at Agincourt during Henry V’s leadership; Burgundians shift sides after internal French turmoil.
1419: Assassination of the Duke of Burgundy; Burgundy and English align against the French.
1420: Treaty of Troyes disinherits the French king and names Henry V as successor to Charles VI; 1422: Henry VI proclaimed king of both England and France in Paris.
1429: Joan of Arc leads French to victory at Orléans; crowned Charles VII at Reims; French unity consolidated, despite later setbacks.
1431: Joan of Arc executed as a relapsed heretic; 1453: England loses most of its French possessions, retaining only Calais.
Joan of Arc and the War’s Conclusion
Joan of Arc (1412–1431) emerged from Domrémy, claiming divine guidance to lift the siege of Orléans.
She inspired French morale and national identity; Charles VII’s skepticism gave way to trust in her counsel, aiding the crown’s legitimacy.
Orléans’ relief catalyzed a series of French victories, culminating in Charles VII’s coronation in Rheims.
Joan was captured by Burgundians in 1430, handed to the English, tried by the Rouen Inquisition, and executed on May 30, 1431.
In 1456, Charles VII reopened her trial and declared her innocent; she was canonized as a saint in 1920.
Aftermath and Consequences of the War
By 1453, English power in France collapsed to Calais; French unity—though fragile—accelerated the transition from feudal monarchy to a centralized state.
Burgundy rose as a major European power due to the war’s dynastic realignments.
England’s war effort spurred the development of domestic industries (notably the cloth trade) and fostered overseas markets.
Burden of war fell predominantly on the peasantry who paid taxes and provided services.
The Black Death: Preconditions, Spread, and Impact
Preconditions:
From 1000–1300, population growth outpaced food production; the three-field system increased arable land but also intensified pressures on resources.
By 1300, Europe faced a demographic squeeze: famine and poor health heightened vulnerability to plague.
The great famine of 1315–1317 weakened populations, especially in dense urban centers like the Netherlands.
1348–1350: Bubonic plague (the Black Death) spread rapidly, probably via seaborne rats from the Black Sea; entered Sicily in 1347 and spread through Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and beyond.
The plague’s geographic spread followed trade routes; outlying areas (e.g., Bohemia) were less affected.
Estimates of death toll: up to 2.5×107 people died in western Europe; some estimates are higher or lower, but a large fraction of the population perished. A full recovery did not occur until the sixteenth century.
Map 9-2 documents the spread by date: major urban centers experienced catastrophic losses; broader Europe faced substantial demographic declines.
Social and Economic Consequences of the Plague
Demographic collapse produced a shrunken labor supply; wage levels rose for surviving workers; costs of labor-intensive farming rose relative to capital-intensive craft work.
Noble power declined as landowners faced higher costs for finished goods and for urban goods; rents declined as labor demand plummeted in some areas.
Labour mobility increased: serfs moved to towns to become artisans; some peasantry paid rents in cash rather than labor services.
Agricultural prices fell due to reduced demand; prices for luxury and manufactured goods rose due to scarcity of skilled labor.
Rural landlords responded with restrictive measures:
Direct taxes like the taille in France rose, while English Parliament passed the Statute of Laborers (1351) which limited wages and restricted peasant mobility; similar pressures contributed to the English Peasants’ Revolt of 1381.
Urban rebound: cities and guilds gained power; urban prosperity drew workers from the countryside, slightly balancing wealth distributions.
The church benefitted economically from increased demand for masses, prayers, and endowments to support the dead and dying.
The social fabric shifted as guilds grew in importance, challenging the traditional dominance of landed nobility and urban patricians.
New Conflicts and Opportunities for the Late Middle Ages
The plague amplified the political and economic power of urban artisanal and merchant classes, reshaping city governance and policy.
Guilds gained political influence; they pushed for protective measures to defend local industries, sometimes restricting entry into crafts and limiting the number of masters.
Tensions emerged within guilds between masters and journeymen who sought advancement to master status.
The old order—nobility and church—began to lose some authority as centralizing monarchies expanded power using new financial and administrative tools.
The war demonstrated the military superiority of paid professionals over noble cavalry, undermining traditional noble prestige and calling into question the role of the old aristocracy in warfare.
The plague also reduced clerical ranks substantially (the Great Schism era compounded the issue); many clergy died while ministering to the sick and dying, weakening church leadership during a period of Avignon residence (1309–1377) and the Great Schism (1378–1417).
Medieval Medicine and the Plague: An Educational Snapshot
Medieval medicine was a marketplace of diverse practices, combining natural, religious, and magical remedies.
Core framework: the four elements (earth, air, water, fire) and the four qualities (hot, cold, moist, dry) governed the four humors (blood, black bile, yellow bile, phlegm).
Illness resulted from humor imbalance; healers aimed to restore balance by removing or redirecting humors.
Diagnostic tools included examination of urine, blood, and the pulse; the uro-scopic test (urine analysis) was a key diagnostic badge.
Medical practitioners:
University-trained physicians treated internal illnesses via diet and medicine.
Apothecaries supplied herbs; surgeons and barber-surgeons performed procedures.
The medical marketplace also included lay healers whose practices varied in authority and efficacy.
Astrological beliefs influenced medical diagnosis and treatment timing, reflecting the era's cosmological worldview.
Boccaccio and the Black Death inFlorence
Boccaccio’s Decameron (1348) provides a vivid clinical portrait of plague symptoms and the limits of medical practice.
Observed responses ranged from moderation to hedonism; many fled cities or sought solace in religious processions or self-punishment, including flagellant movements.
The Decameron highlights the plague's social disruption and the perceived powerlessness of physicians.
Excerpt themes (from Decameron):
Early symptoms and dramatic progression without consistent fever in all cases.
The plague’s capacity to overwhelm medical knowledge and curative attempts.
Popular Beliefs, Persecutions, and Social Turmoil
Popular remedies included aromatic smells and amulets; many people sought to mitigate disease through spiritual or magical means.
Flagellants (religious extremists) attempted public acts of penance to avert divine punishment; such movements disrupted social order and were suppressed by the Church.
Jews were scapegoated as sources of misfortune, contributing to pogroms and rising anti-Semitic violence amid the plague’s chaos.
The Church: Schism, Heresy, and Reform of the Church
The Black Death and the schism contributed to a crisis of confidence in the medieval church.
The Avignon papacy and the Great Schism undermined popular support for church leadership and monastic authority.
Conciliarists argued for the judicial superiority of church councils over the pope, seeking to curb papal power and ensure accountability to church communities.
Connection to Broader European History
The period demonstrates the rise of centralized monarchies in England and France, setting the stage for stronger national states.
The economic and social shifts—from feudal obligation to monetary wage labor and urban guild politics—redefined power structures across Europe.
The interplay of war, plague, and schism catalyzed shifts in governance, religion, and society that shaped late medieval and early modern Europe.
Notes on Gaps in the Provided Transcript
Medieval Russia, In Perspective sections appear in the material but are not elaborated in the provided pages.
Map 9-1 and Map 9-2 are referenced with visuals in the text; their exact content is summarized here but not reproduced.
Key Dates and Numerical References (for quick recall)
Hundred Years' War: 1337–1453
Black Death in Europe: 1347–1350 (major waves); spread traced to 1350 in many regions
Schism: 1378–1417 (three competing popes at one point, by 1409)
Estates General (France): first formalized taxation body around 1355
Jacquerie (French peasant revolt): 1358
Peace of Brétigny: 1360
Jacquerie (English context) and the English Peasants’ Revolt: 1381
Agincourt: 1415
Treaty of Troyes: 1420
Henry V's reign and the dream of ruling both England and France: 1413–1422
Orléans relief and Joan of Arc’s leadership: 1429
Joan of Arc executed: 1431
Burgundy–Charles VII peace and France’s resurgence: 1435
End of the war and English coastal withdrawal (Calais remained): 1453
Population loss estimates from the plague (western Europe): up to 52 of population by the early 15th century
Death toll estimate (lower bound): 2.5×107 people
Ransom in Treaty of Brétigny: 3,000,000 gold crowns
Recovery from plague: not complete until the sixteenth century
Connections to Foundational Principles and Real-World Relevance
National identity formation and early modern state-building emerge from medieval warfare and centralized governance.
Economic transitions (labor markets, guilds, urbanization) foreshadow the commercial and industrial developments of later centuries.
The interplay of disease, war, and religion demonstrates how external shocks can accelerate political centralization and
The Late Middle Ages: War, Plague, and Schism
The Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) between England and France
Gunpowder and heavy artillery
The Black Death (1348–1350) decimated populations
The Great Schism (1378–1417) undermined church authority
Turkish advance toward Constantinople (1453)
Intellectual and Political Shifts
Critiques from Marsilius of Padua, William of Ockham, and Lorenzo Valla
Secular rulers used parliaments to limit papal power
Rulers accountable to the governed
The Causes of the War
Origins (May 1337 – October 1453)
Edward III of England claimed the French throne
Philip VI of Valois became the new French king
Key Issues
Edward III was a vassal of the French king
Control over Flanders
English–French hostility
National identity and territory
France vs. England: Strengths and Weaknesses
France
Larger population and wealth
Internal disunity
Strained finances
Estates General expanded regional rights
England
Disciplined infantry and longbowmen
Weak French leadership
Progress of the War
Stage 1 (Edward III’s reign)
English victories: Bay of Sluys (1340) and Crécy (1346)
Black Death slowed campaigns
1356: English victory at Poitiers, French king captured
1360: Peace of Brétigny recognized English holdings in France
Stage 2
French resistance and English retreats
Edward III’s death, internal English turmoil
Stage 3 (Henry V’s reign)
1415: English victory at Agincourt
1420: Treaty of Troyes, Henry V successor
1429: Joan of Arc led French to victory at Orléans
Joan executed in 1431
1453: England lost most French possessions
Joan of Arc and the War’s Conclusion
Joan of Arc (1412–1431)
Inspired French morale and national identity
Captured in 1430, executed in 1431
Trial reopened, canonized in 1920
Aftermath and Consequences of the War
Outcomes
1453: English power in France collapsed
French unity, centralized state
Burgundy rose as major power
England developed industries and overseas markets
Peasantry bore the burden of war
The Black Death: Preconditions, Spread, and Impact
Preconditions
Population growth outpaced food production
Famine and poor health
1315–1317: great famine weakened populations
Spread and Impact
1348–1350: Black Death spread via trade routes
Up to 2.5×107 deaths in western Europe
Recovery in the sixteenth century
Social and Economic Consequences of the Plague
Effects
Shrunken labor supply, rising wages
Noble power decline, labor mobility increase
Agricultural prices fell, luxury goods rose
Rural restrictions, urban rebound
Church benefitted economically
Guilds grew in importance
New Conflicts and Opportunities
Changes
Power of urban artisans and merchants amplified
Guilds gained political influence
Centralizing monarchies expanded power
Paid professionals superior to noble cavalry
Church lost authority
Medieval Medicine and the Plague
Practices
Combined natural, religious, and magical remedies
Humor imbalance
Diagnostic tools: urine and blood examination
Practitioners: physicians, apothecaries, surgeons
Astrological beliefs
Boccaccio and the Black Death in Florence
Boccaccio’s Decameron (1348)
Plague symptoms and medical limits
Responses: moderation to hedonism
Social disruption, powerlessness of physicians
Popular Beliefs, Persecutions, and Social Turmoil
Reactions
Aromatic smells and amulets
Flagellants attempted public penance
Jews were scapegoated
The Church: Schism, Heresy, and Reform
Crisis
Black Death and schism caused crisis of confidence
Avignon papacy and Great Schism undermined support
Conciliarists sought to curb papal power
Connection to Broader European History
Developments
Centralized monarchies in England and France
Economic shifts redefined power structures
War, plague, and schism accelerated political centralization
Notes on Gaps in the Provided Transcript
Missing Information
Medieval Russia and maps referenced but not elaborated
Key Dates and Numerical References
Key Dates
Hundred Years' War: 1337–1453
Black Death: 1347–1350
Schism: 1378–1417
Estates General: 1355
Jacquerie (French): 1358
English Peasants’ Revolt: 1381
Agincourt: 1415
Treaty of Troyes: 1420
Joan of Arc: 1429-1431
End of the war: 1453
Numerical References
Population loss: up to 52 by the early 15th century