American History Notes

The First Continental Congress and the Beginning of the American Revolution

  • First Continental Congress:
    • Held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in September 1774.
    • Delegates from the colonies demanded the repeal of the Intolerable Acts.
    • Sought the same rights as other English citizens, including no taxation without consent.
  • British Response:
    • Sent 3000 soldiers to occupy Boston.
    • Naval blockade to prevent ships from entering or leaving Boston Harbor.
  • Lexington and Concord (April 1775):
    • British General Thomas Gage aimed to destroy colonial weapons and supplies in Concord, Massachusetts.
    • Paul Revere and William Dawes alerted the Minutemen (colonial soldiers ready to fight).
    • At Lexington, shots were fired, resulting in 17 colonists killed or wounded and one British soldier wounded.
    • This event was described as "the shot heard 'round the world" by Ralph Waldo Emerson.
  • British Retreat to Boston:
    • Patriots attacked the retreating British soldiers, causing over 250 casualties.
    • The British were trapped in Boston, surrounded by armed colonists.
  • Battle of Breed's Hill:
    • Patriots built a fort on Breed's Hill and fired cannons at the British.
    • The British captured the fort after the Patriots ran out of gunpowder.
    • The Patriots inflicted heavy casualties on the British, demonstrating their fighting ability.

Benjamin Franklin's Anecdote

  • Franklin shared a story about an apprentice hatter to illustrate the dangers of public bodies reviewing and amending documents.
  • The hatter's signboard inscription was progressively reduced from "John Thompson, Hatter, makes and sells hats for ready money" to simply "John Thompson" with a hat image, due to friends' suggestions.
  • Franklin's message: He preferred not to draft papers for public review because they would inevitably be altered and potentially weakened.

The Second Continental Congress and the Declaration of Independence

  • Second Continental Congress:
    • Began in May 1775 in Philadelphia (Independence Hall).
    • Established the Continental Army, led by George Washington.
    • British soldiers retreated from Boston in March 1776.
  • Thomas Paine's "Common Sense": A pamphlet advocating separation from Britain, which significantly boosted support for independence.
  • Inspiration from the Magna Carta (1215):
    • The Magna Carta established rights such as representative government, trial by jury, and due process.
    • Colonists felt deprived of these rights and sought to reclaim them through independence.
  • Declaration of Independence:
    • The Second Continental Congress decided the 13 colonies should be self-governing.
    • Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence.
    • Approved on July 4, 1776, marking the birth of the United States.
  • Key principles from the Declaration of Independence:
    • All men are created equal.
    • Endowed with unalienable rights: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
    • Governments derive power from the consent of the governed.
    • The people have the right to alter or abolish a destructive government and institute a new one.

The Revolutionary War

  • Loyalists: Approximately 20% of Americans favored British rule.
  • Advantages and Disadvantages:
    • The British outnumbered the American forces.
    • Americans fought on familiar ground.
    • Britain struggled to sustain and supply its military over a long distance.
  • French Alliance (1778): France joined the war on the American side, providing money, arms, and naval support.
  • British Surrender at Yorktown (October 1781): Marked the last major battle of the war.
  • Treaty of Paris (September 1783):
    • Granted independence to the United States.
    • Expanded the new country's territory.
  • Key Battles of the American Revolution:
    • Lexington-Concord (April 19, 1775), American Commander: Capt. John Parker
    • Bunker (Breed's) Hill (June 17, 1775), American Commanders: Gen. Israel Putnam, Col. William Prescott
    • Quebec (Dec. 31, 1775), American Commander: Gen. Richard Montgomery
    • Long Island (Aug. 27, 1776), American Commander: Gen. George Washington
    • White Plains (Oct. 26, 1776), American Commander: Gen. George Washington
    • Trenton (Dec. 26, 1776), American Commander: Gen. George Washington
    • Brandywine (Sept. 11, 1777), American Commander: Gen. George Washington
    • Saratoga (Freeman's Farm) (Sept. 19, 1777), American Commander: Gen. Horatio Gates
    • Germantown (Oct. 4, 1777), American Commander: Gen. George Washington
    • Saratoga (Oct. 7, 1777), American Commander: Gen. Horatio Gates
    • White Marsh (Dec. 5, 1777), American Commander: Gen. George Washington
    • Monmouth Courthouse (June 8, 1778), American Commander: Gen. George Washington
    • Siege of Savannah (Sept. 16, 1779), American Commander: Gen. Benjamin Lincoln
    • Siege of Charleston (Mar. 29, 1780), American Commander: Gen. Benjamin Lincoln
    • Siege of Yorktown (Sept. 28, 1781), American Commanders: Gen. George Washington, Gen. Rochambeau

From the Articles of Confederation to the U.S. Constitution

  • Articles of Confederation:
    • The first government operated under this document.
    • Limited central government power due to states' desire for autonomy.
    • Problems included regulating trade and national defense.
  • U.S. Constitution (1787):
    • Created to correct the problems of the Articles of Confederation.
    • Established a federal system with central and state governments.
    • The central government is divided into executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
    • The central government has power over national functions, such as defense and trade regulation.
    • State governments have authority over functions not assigned to the central government.
  • Comparison of the Articles of Confederation and the U.S. Constitution:
    • Articles of Confederation:
      • States represented in Congress by no less than two, nor more than seven members.
      • Each state maintained its own delegates.
      • Each state had one vote in Congress.
    • U.S. Constitution:
      • Legislative powers vested in a Congress consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives.
      • Representatives and direct taxes apportioned among states according to their numbers.
      • The Senate composed of two Senators from each state, chosen by the Legislature thereof for six years; each Senator has one vote.
  • Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists:
    • Federalists: Favored a strong central government with control over the states.
    • Anti-Federalists: Believed in more freedom for the states and feared a strong central government.
  • Anti-Federalists' Objections to the Constitution:
    • Opposed the strong central government.
    • Believed it threatened state power and individual rights.
    • Demanded a Bill of Rights.
    • Feared it favored the wealthy.
  • Compromises and the Bill of Rights:
    • Compromises were made to address the concerns of both groups.
    • The Bill of Rights (the first 10 amendments) was added to guarantee individual rights.
  • Preamble to the U.S. Constitution: The words "We the people…" indicate that the power of the government comes from the people.

The War of 1812

  • Louisiana Purchase (1803):
    • Under President Thomas Jefferson, the United States purchased a large area of land from France.
    • Doubled the size of the United States.
  • Neutrality and Trade:
    • Presidents Jefferson and Madison sought to maintain neutrality in the conflict between Britain and France.
    • The United States wanted to continue trade with both countries.
  • Causes of the War of 1812:
    • British naval vessels stopped American merchant ships.
    • American sailors were forced to serve in the British navy.
    • Americans believed the British were supplying weapons to Native Americans.
  • Key Events:
    • Congress declared war on Britain in June 1812.
    • The British navy blockaded U.S. ships.
    • Washington, D.C., was attacked and burned by the British in August 1814, including the White House.
  • Treaty of Ghent:
    • Signed to end the conflict.
    • Did not award territory to either country.
    • Restored pre-war boundaries.
  • Effects of the War:
    • British blockades led to shortages, prompting Americans to manufacture their own goods.
    • Increased American nationalism and economic prosperity.

The Monroe Doctrine

  • Context: President James Monroe was concerned about potential European invasions in the Americas after the War of 1812.
  • Monroe Doctrine (1823):
    • The United States would resist any European efforts to establish new colonies or attack countries in the Americas.
    • The United States would remain neutral in European conflicts as long as European countries did not interfere in the Americas.
  • Significance: The Monroe Doctrine positioned the United States as a player in worldwide politics.
  • Core Principle: The American continents were "not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers."
  • U.S. Policy Regarding Europe: Not to interfere in the internal concerns of any of its powers; to consider the government de facto as the legitimate government; cultivate friendly relations with it, and preserve those relations by a frank, firm, and manly policy, meeting in all instances the just claims of every power, submitting to injuries from none.

U.S. Policy Toward Native Americans

  • Andrew Jackson's Actions:
    • Defeated Creek Native Americans, forcing them to cede 22 million acres in Georgia and Alabama.
    • Invaded Spanish Florida to fight the Seminoles, acquiring more land.
    • Negotiated treaties, acquiring Native American land in the Southeast for land in the West.
  • Cherokee Nation and the Supreme Court:
    • The Cherokee appealed to the Supreme Court to protect their land.
    • In 1831, the Court ruled that the tribe had the right to their own government and was not subject to Georgia laws.
    • The state refused to follow the ruling, and President Jackson did not enforce it.
  • Indian Removal Act:
    • Authorized the forcible removal of Native Americans east of the Mississippi River to a new "Indian territory" in the West.
  • Seminole Resistance:
    • The Seminoles refused to leave their land, leading to three wars against them by the U.S. Army.
    • The remaining Seminoles were eventually paid to move to the West.
  • Trail of Tears:
    • A minority faction of the Cherokee agreed to a removal treaty.
    • When the majority had not moved by the treaty deadline, the U.S. government forcibly expelled 16,000 Cherokee.
    • 4000 Cherokee died along the journey due to hunger, cold, and disease.
  • Impact of Jackson's Policy:
    • 46,000 Native Americans were expelled from their lands.
    • Added 25 million acres of land for settlers.

Manifest Destiny

  • Context:
    • In 1845, the United States annexed the Texas Republic.
    • This reignited efforts to expand the United States further.
  • Belief in Manifest Destiny:
    • Many believed that the United States had a "manifest destiny" to occupy the entire North American continent, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.
  • Expansion After the Mexican-American War (1846-1848):
    • The United States gained huge new territories in the West after defeating Mexico.
    • The area of the United States increased by more than 60%.
  • Westward Migration:
    • Large numbers of people migrated westward.
    • New territories and states were organized west of the Mississippi River.
  • California Gold Rush (1849):
    • Gold was discovered in California, attracting thousands of Americans.
    • California became a state in 1850.

Civil War and Reconstruction

  • Sectionalism:
    • Economic, cultural, and political differences between regions led to conflicting policies and demands.
    • The North's economy was based on industry and trade, while the South's economy was based on agriculture and slave labor.
  • Economic Differences:
    • Northerners supported high tariffs to protect manufacturing.
    • Southerners opposed high tariffs and favored policies protecting slavery and agricultural exports.
  • The Issue of Slavery:
    • The expansion of slavery into new territories was a major point of contention.
    • "States' rights" proponents believed each state should decide on slavery.
    • Abolitionists believed slavery was wrong and should be banned everywhere.
  • Dred Scott Decision (1857):
    • The Supreme Court ruled that slaves were property and had no legal rights.
    • The southern states supported the Dred Scott decision, while the northern states did not.
  • Election of Abraham Lincoln (1860):
    • Lincoln opposed the expansion of slavery.
    • Southern states seceded and formed the Confederate States of America, electing Jefferson Davis as president.
  • Civil War (1861-1865):
    • The Confederacy initiated the war by firing on Fort Sumter in April 1861.
    • The North had advantages in industry, finance, resources, and transportation.
    • The war resulted in over 600,000 deaths.
  • Emancipation Proclamation (1862):
    • Lincoln declared all slaves in Confederate states free.
    • 180,000 former slaves joined the Union army.
  • End of the War:
    • Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union Commander Ulysses S. Grant in April 1865.
  • Reconstruction:
    • Lincoln's Reconstruction plan aimed to reunite the country.
    • Andrew Johnson became president after Lincoln's assassination.
    • The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery in December 1865.
  • Radical Republicans vs. President Johnson:
    • Radical Republicans in Congress favored harsher treatment of the South and protection of African American rights.
    • Johnson's Reconstruction policy was considered too lenient.
    • Southern legislatures enacted Black Codes restricting African American rights.
  • Radical Reconstruction:
    • The Freedman's Bureau was supported by radicals to help freed slaves.
    • The Fourteenth Amendment granted citizenship to former slaves.
    • The Fifteenth Amendment outlawed restrictions on voting based on race.

The United States Becomes a Major Industrial Nation

  • First Industrial Revolution (began in 1793):
    • Key Invented the cotton gin: Processed as much cotton in one day as 1000 slaves could, and it increased tenfold the profits of southern planters.
    • Steamboat: The upriver travel this enabled drove the New England textile industry.
  • National Transportation System:
    • Included canals, paved roads, and the transcontinental railroad (completed in 1869).
    • Linked agricultural and industrial regions to expand markets for goods.
    • The railway boom enabled the cattle boom of the 1870s, transporting cattle to Chicago slaughterhouses.
  • Factory Working Conditions (Pre-Civil War):
    • Low wages, 60- to 85-hour workweeks, and unsafe conditions.
    • Constant immigration allowed easy replacement of dissatisfied workers.
    • Exposure to industrial pollution and dangerous machinery.
  • Second Industrial Revolution (Post-Civil War):
    • Instant long-distance communication (telegraph, telephone).
    • Typewriter for perfect printed letters.
    • Electric lightbulb for cheap, steady lamplight, revolutionizing work and leisure.
  • Bessemer Process:
    • Enabled cheap conversion of iron ore into steel.
    • Led to a surge in steel production.
    • Cities built skyscrapers, suspension bridges, and elevated train lines.
  • Rise of Reform and Labor Unions:
    • Progressive Party and labor unions helped workers enjoy profits from their labor.