Systems of Difference and Gender Stratification

• This week’s focus: Understanding the systems of difference that maintain distinctions between various groups of people.

  • Different stratifications arise from:

  • Structures of power

  • Cultural norms

  • Cultural norms are:

  • Pervasive

  • Persuasive

  • Frequently contested and defied through everyday acts of agency.

• Central theme: Agency manifests in diverse forms, often not aligned with conventional notions of freedom.

Anthropological Perspectives on Gender

• Previous discussion: Social construction of race by anthropologists.

• Current examination: Challenging the binary model of gender.

  • Traditional view: All cultures divide humans into two genders.

  • Anthropological perspective: Variability in understandings and enactments of gender across cultures.

Noteworthy Gender Systems

• Hijra of India:

  • Referred to as a third gender.

  • Typically biologically male, adopting female attire, gestures, and names.

  • Eschew sexual desire and activity.

  • Engage in rituals conferring divine powers (e.g., blessing or cursing fertility).

  • Participate in significant life events like weddings and births.

• Third Gender Individuals Documented by Deborah Miranda:

  • Focus: Spanish conquest of California.

  • Spanish referred to third gender people as "yas."

  • These individuals held sacred roles in their communities, involved in transitions between life and death.

  • Miranda describes the violence against these gender-variant individuals as "gendercide," emphasizing cultural erasure by colonization.

Critical Examination of Gender Norms

• Ooruke Oyewumi's Work (The Invention of Women, 1997):

  • Challenges assumptions about gender categories existing universally.

  • Focus: Pre-colonial Yoruba society did not organize itself based on gender distinctions.

  • Key insight: Biological determinism has influenced the classification of societies.

  • Oyewumi states: "The fundamental category woman did not exist in Yoruba society before prolonged contact with the West."

Shared Vocabulary in Gender Studies

• Sex:

  • Definition: Physical differences (biological) between male, female, and intersex.

• Gender:

  • Definition: Culturally assigned expectations and roles based on sex (e.g., man, woman, third gender, non-binary).

• Gender Identity:

  • Internal understanding of one’s own gender.

• Gender Performance/Expression:

  • External demonstration of gender identity through behavior, appearance, names, or pronouns.

  • Key reference: Kenneth Guest.

Gender as Cultural Performance

• Interpretation by Carol Macfarlane and Tammy Bloomingfeld:

  • Gender roles are created through cultural expectations and learned behaviors.

  • Performance varies based on societal pressures.

• Case Study: Barbie Movie (2023):

  • Ken character illustrates different masculinities and power dynamics, showcasing fluidity in gender roles.

Gender Stratification and Ideology

• Gender Stratification:

  • Definition: Unequal distribution of power shaped by gender, affecting access to rights, opportunities, and privileges.

• Gender Ideology:

  • Definition: Cultural ideas about genders, often stereotypical, justifying stratification.

  • Examples:

  • Women as natural caretakers.

  • Men as naturally aggressive and suited for public roles.

  • Discussions around political gender representation in the U.S.

Exploring Gender Ideologies through Anthropology

• Emily Martin's Article (The Egg and the Sperm):

  • Analysis of reproduction language in scientific literature.

  • Male reproductive language: Described as "agentive and productive."

  • Female reproductive language: Seen as "passive and wasteful."

  • Importance of recognizing cultural stereotypes within scientific discourse.

• Sali Jan Akar's Ethnography:

  • Investigates Turkish veterans and notions of masculinity post-disability.

  • Links maleness with patriotism and societal expectations.

Challenging Cultural Narratives

• Lila Abu-Lughod's Critique:

  • Examines narrative of "saving Afghan women" after the 2003 invasion.

  • Critiques the portrayal of Muslim women as oppressed figures.

  • Introduces the concept of Colonial Feminism: The selective concern for women under colonial regimes neglecting broader issues.

  • Author emphasizes complexity in representation; veiling should not equate to unfreedom.

• Abu-Lughod’s Reflections:

  • Queries the implications of saving narratives on cultural superiority.

  • Questions what constitutes justice for women and acknowledges diverse meanings of freedom.

Ethnography of Kalasha Women

• Winifred Maggie's Research in Kalasha Valleys, Pakistan:

  • Focus: Concept of freedom among Kalasha women.

  • Kalasha women declare: "Our women are free," complicating Western definitions of freedom.

• Agency in Cultural Practices:

  • Discusses societal restrictions balancing with women's agency.

  • Menstrual huts (Basali): Often misinterpreted as oppression.

  • Actual role: Sites of ritual and community for women.

• Examples from Fieldwork:

  • Kalasha women see agency in cultural practices, not merely as submissive participants.

  • Elements of autonomy within defined spaces display active engagement.

Summary of Anthropological Insights on Gender

• Gender roles/elements vary culturally, with no universal gender alignment to sex.

• Gender norms exert powerful societal influence but are continuously negotiated.

• Anthropological studies reveal the intersection of gender, culture, and power, urging critical examination of gender discourses in our own contexts.