Notes on Learned Motives: Classical, Instrumental & Observational Learning

Chapter 5: Learned Motives: Classical, Instrumental & Observational Learning

Pavlovian Classical Conditioning

  • Definition: A neutral stimulus can eventually elicit a response due to the temporal pairing with a motivating stimulus.
  • Unconditioned Response (UCR) vs. Conditioned Response (CR):
    • UCR is the natural reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
    • CR occurs after the conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with UCS during conditioning.
  • Extinction:
    • Occurs when the CS no longer produces the CR after repeated presentations without the UCS.
    • This learning process is considered passive.

Experimental Neurosis & Eliminating Motivated Behaviours

  • Experimental Neurosis: Anxiety arises not from classical conditioning but from unpredictability in the task.
  • Case Study: Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, which later generalized to other objects (rabbit, dog, etc.).
  • Counterconditioning: Combines positive stimuli with negative emotion to reduce fear.
  • Systematic Desensitization: Involves exposure to anxiety-inducing situations while practicing relaxation.
    • UCS: Command to relax
    • CS: Anxiety producer

Interoceptive Conditioning

  • Involves conditioning based on internal changes (internal stimuli).
  • Types:
    1. Intero-exteroceptive: Internal CS, external UCS.
    2. Intero-interoceptive: Both CS and UCS are internal.
    3. Extero-interoceptive: External CS, internal UCS.
  • Characteristics:
    • Not avoidable and often more permanent than traditional classical conditioning.
    • Relevant in psychosomatic medicine.

Learned Aversion

  • Occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with a negative stimulus leading to an aversion.
  • Example: Cancer patients develop food aversions due to nausea from treatments.
    • Introducing novel tastes during treatment can create aversions to those tastes instead of the actual meal.
  • Types of Associations:
    • Prepared associations: Naturally predisposed to associate certain stimuli.
    • Unprepared associations: No natural predisposition.
    • Contraprepared associations: Difficult associations.

Instrumental/Operant Conditioning

  • Rooted in Thorndike's law of effect, suggesting consequences affect behavior's strength.
  • Skinner emphasizes that it's the response's strength being modulated, not merely the association.
  • Amount of Reinforcement (AOR):
    1. More reinforcement leads to stronger responses.
    2. Excessive reinforcement can be detrimental.
  • Quality of Reinforcement (QOR):
    • Better subjectively perceived reinforcements yield better performance.
  • History of Reinforcement:
    • Negative contrast: Reduction in reward decreases performance.
    • Positive contrast: Increase in reward enhances performance.

Types of Reinforcers

  1. Primary Reinforcer: Naturally increase the probability of a response (e.g., food, water).
  2. Secondary Reinforcer: Learned reinforcers paired with primary ones (e.g., praise).
  3. Generalized Conditioned Reinforcer: Associated with multiple primary reinforcers (e.g., money).
  4. Token Economies: Used in both animals and humans for behavior modification, linking non-intrinsic tokens with desired behaviors.

Classical-Operant Conditioning Interactions

  • Acquired Fear: Rats learn to avoid shock by moving to a safe compartment, combining classical conditioning (fear of the shock side) with operant conditioning (lever pressing).
  • Conditioned Emotional Responses (CERs): Using classical conditioning to evoke emotions in previously operantly conditioned behaviors.

Learned Helplessness

  • Defined by Seligman as a disturbance in motivation and cognition stemming from uncontrollable situations.
    1. Passivity: Individuals become inactive due to perceived lack of control.
    2. Slowed Learning: Perception of uncontrollability hinders learning ability.
    3. Somatic Effects: Reduced aggression in competitive situations when control is perceived to be lost.
    4. Temporal Reduction of Helplessness: Space between uncontrollable events can lessen feelings of helplessness, while closely spaced events can have lasting effects.

Causes & Prevention of Learned Helplessness

  • Trauma alone isn’t sufficient; lack of control is crucial.
  • Teaching control before exposure to uncontrollable events can mitigate learned helplessness.
  • Criticisms:
    • Differentiation between lack of control and lack of motivation.
    • Feelings of guilt or self-blame may confuse interpretations.

Observational Learning (Modeling)

  • Also known as Vicarious Learning or Social Learning Theory (Bandura).
  • Emphasizes interaction between behavior and controlling conditions without needing multiple reinforcements.

Modeling Processes

  1. Attention: Focus on observed behavior is necessary for learning.
  2. Retention: Behavior needs to be stored for later reproduction (via verbal and imagery).
  3. Reproduction: Must synthesize responses to reproduce the observed behavior.
  4. Vicarious Reinforcement: Likelihood of reproducing a rewarded behavior is higher than for punished ones.

Learned Motives and Aggression

  1. Learning & Aggression: Observing successful aggression can lead to learned aggression.
  2. Classical Conditioning & Aggression: Pain can condition neutral stimuli to induce aggression.
  3. Instrumental Conditioning & Aggression: Positive reinforcement of aggressive actions increases their occurrence.