Psychology Lecture Notes Flashcards

Research Design

  • CORRELATION: Identifies relationships between two variables.
  • EXPERIMENTS: Manipulate variables to determine cause and effect.
  • NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: Observe people in their natural settings.
  • CASE STUDY: Studies one person (usually) in great detail.
  • META-ANALYSIS: Combines multiple studies to increase sample size and examine effect sizes.

Basic Vocabulary

  • Hypothesis: A tentative explanation that must be falsifiable (able to be supported or rejected).
  • Operational Definition: Clear, precise, quantifiable definition of variables, allowing replication and reliable data collection.
  • Qualitative Data: Descriptive data (e.g., eye color).
  • Quantitative Data: Numerical data, ideal and necessary for statistics.
  • Population: Everyone the research could apply to.
  • Sample: The people (or person) specifically chosen for the study.

Research Designs

  • Advantages: Useful when experiments are unethical.
  • Disadvantages:
    • CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION
      • Directionality Problem: Which direction does the correlation go? (e.g., depression cause low self-esteem, or vice versa, or a third variable).
      • 3rd Variable Problem: A different variable is responsible for the relationship (e.g., ice cream sales and murder rates).
    • Positive Correlation: Variables increase and decrease together.
    • Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases.
    • The stronger the absolute value of the number, the stronger the relationship, regardless of the positive or negative sign. The correlation coefficient cannot be less than -1 or greater than 1.
    • Stronger relationships = tighter clusters on a graph.

Experiments

  • Advantages: Only type that establishes cause and effect.
  • Disadvantages: Can be unethical, too artificial.
    • Independent Variable: Purposefully altered by researcher to look for effect.
      • Experimental Group: Receives the treatment (part of the IV); can have multiple experimental groups.
      • Control Group: Placebo, baseline (part of the IV); can only have one.
    • Dependent Variable: Measured variable (is DEPENDENT on the independent variable).
  • Vocab Unique to Experiments:
    • Placebo Effect: Any observed effect on a subject that is "caused" by the placebo (shows effectiveness of experimental treatment). Usually fixed with blinded studies.
    • Double-Blind: Experiment where neither the participant nor the experimenter is aware of which condition people are assigned to (e.g., drug studies).
    • Single-Blind: Only participant blind—used if experimenter can’t be blind (e.g., gender, age).
    • Confound: Error/flaw in study that is accidentally introduced (can be called a confounding variable).
    • Random Assignment: Assigns participants to either control or experimental group at random; increases chance of equal representation among groups—allows you to say Cause/Effect.

Other Study Types

  • Advantages: Real-world validity.
  • Disadvantages: No cause and effect.
  • Advantages: Collect lots of info.
  • Disadvantages: No cause/effect.

Statistics

  • Descriptive Stats: Show shape of the data.
    • Measures of Central Tendency:
      • Mean: Average (use in normal distribution).
      • Median: Middle number (use in skewed distribution).
      • Mode: Occurs most often.
        • Bimodal: Has two modes—usually indicates good and bad scores.
    • Skews: Created by outliers.
      • Negative skew = mean is to the left (negative side), mode is to the right.
      • Positive skew = mean is to the right.
    • Measure of Variation:
      • Range: Distance between smallest and biggest number.
      • Standard Deviation: Average amount the scores are spread from the mean (bigger number = more spread).
  • Inferential Statistics: Establishes significance (meaningfulness).
    • Statistical Significance: Results not due to chance, experimental manipulation caused the difference in means.
      • p < .05 = statistically significant, smaller is better.
    • Effect Size: Data has practical significance—bigger is better.

Ethical Guidelines (IRB Approval Needed for People)

  • Confidentiality: Names kept secret.
  • Informed Consent: Must agree to be part of study.
  • Informed Assent: Minors AND their parents must agree.
  • Debriefing: Must be told the true purpose of the study (done after for deception).
  • Deception must be warranted.
  • No harm—mental/physical.

Additional Vocabulary

  • Surveys: Usually turned into correlation. Subject to self-report bias - errors when collect survey data due to:
    • Social Desirability: People lie to look good.
    • Wording Effects: How you frame the question can impact your answers.
  • Random Sample (Selection): Method for choosing participants for your study—everyone has a chance to take part, increases generalizability.
  • Representative Sample: Sample mimics the general population (ethnic, gender, age).
  • Convenience Sample: Select participants on availability—less representative and less generalizability this way.
  • Sampling Bias: Sample isn’t representative, due to convenience sampling.

Biological Basis

  • Cultural Norms: Behaviors of a particular group can influence research results.
  • Experimenter Bias / Participant Bias: Experimenter/participant expectations influences the outcome.
  • Cognitive Bias: Bias in thinking/judgment.
    • Confirmation Bias: Find info that supports our preexisting beliefs.
    • Hindsight Bias: "I knew it all along."
    • Overconfidence: Overestimate our knowledge / abilities.
    • Hawthorne Effect: People change behavior when watched.
  • Research needs peer review and adequate sample sizes.
  • NT = neurotransmitter, AP = action potential, NS = nervous system

Heredity vs. Environment

  • Evolutionary Psychology: Study how natural selection influences behavior.
  • Heredity (Nature): How genes influence your behavior.
  • Environment (Nurture): How outside situations influence your behavior (school).
  • NATURE VS. NURTURE: ANSWER IS BOTH
    • Twin / Adoption Studies:
      • Genetics: Identical twin will have a higher percentage of also developing a disease.
      • Environment: Identical twins raised in different environments show differences.

Nervous System

  • CENTRAL NS: Brain and spinal cord.
  • PERIPHERAL NS: Rest of the NS—relays to Central NS.
    • Somatic NS: Voluntary movement, has sensory and motor neurons.
    • Autonomic NS: Involuntary organs (heart, lungs, etc.)—contains the:
      • Sympathetic NS: Fight/flight (generally activates—exception digestion).
      • Parasympathetic NS: Rest / digest (generally inhibits - exception digestion).

Neuron and Neural Firing

  • NEURON: Basic cell of the NS
    • Dendrites: Receive incoming NTs
    • Axon: AP travels down this
    • Myelin Sheath: Speeds up AP down axon, protects axon
    • Synapse: Gap between neurons
  • SENSORY neurons: Receive sense signals from environment—send signal to brain
  • MOTOR neurons: Signals to move—send signals from brain
  • Interneurons: Cells in spinal cord /brain responsible for reflex arc
    • Reflex Arc: Important stimuli skips the brain and routes through the spinal cord for immediate reactions (hand on a hot flame)
  • GLIA: Support cells—give nutrients and clean up around neurons
  • Neurons Fire with an Action Potential: Ions move across membrane sends an electrical charge down the axon
    • Resting Potential: Neuron maintains a -70mv charge when not doing anything
    • Depolarization: Charge of neuron briefly switches from negative to positive—triggers the AP
    • Threshold of Depolarization: Stimulus strength must reach this point to start the AP
    • All or Nothing Principle: Stimulus must trigger the AP past its threshold, but does not increase the intensity or speed of the response (flush the toilet)
    • Refractory Period: Neuron must rest and reset before it can send another AP (toilet resets)

Neurotransmitters (NT)

  • Chemicals released in synaptic gap, received by neurons. Classified as excitatory (increase APs in other neurons) or inhibitory (decrease APs)
    • GABA: Major inhibitory NT
    • Glutamate: Major excitatory NT (glutes excite you!)
    • Dopamine: Reward (short term) & fine movement—in hypothalamus, associated with addiction
    • Serotonin: Moods (long-term), emotion, sleep—in amygdala, too little associated with depression
    • Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory and movement—in hippocampus, associated with Alzheimer’s
    • Norepinephrine: Sympathetic NS - too little assoc. w/ depression
    • Endorphins: Decrease pain
    • Substance P: Pain regulation (abnormality increases pain and inflammation)
  • HORMONES: If not in the nervous system, it’s a hormone
    • Oxytocin: Love, bonding, childbirth, lactation
    • Adrenaline: Fight/flight
    • Leptin: Makes you full (stops hunger)
    • Ghrelin: Makes you hungry (turns you into a gremlin)
    • Melatonin: Sleep
  • Agonist: Drug that mimics a NT
  • Antagonist: Drug that blocks a NT
  • Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back up into the sending neuron. (antidepressants cause reuptake inhibition (block reuptake)—treatment for depression

Psychoactive Drugs

  • Depressants: Decrease NS activity (alcohol)
  • Stimulants: Increase NS activity (caffeine & cocaine)
  • Hallucinogens: Hallucinations and altered perceptions (Marijuana)
  • Opioids: Relieve pain (endorphin agonists) (heroin)
  • Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to achieve the same effects
  • Addiction: Must have it to avoid withdrawal symptoms
  • Withdrawal: Symptoms associated with sudden stoppage

The Brain

  • Cerebellum: Movement, balance, coordination, procedural memory (walking a tightrope balancing a bell)
  • Brainstem / Medulla: Vital organs (HR, BP, breathing)
  • Reticular Activating System: Alertness, arousal, sleep, eye movement
  • Cerebral Cortex: Outer portion of the brain—higher order thought processes—includes limbic system, lobes, corpus callosum

Limbic System

  • Amygdala: Emotions, fear
  • Hippocampus: Episodic and semantic memory (if you saw a hippo on campus you’d remember it!)
  • Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure center, eating behaviors—link to endocrine system, homeostasis
  • Thalamus: Relay center for all but smell
  • Pituitary Gland: Talks with endocrine system and hypothalamus—release hormones

Lobes

  • Occipital Lobe: Vision
  • Frontal Lobe: Decision making, planning, judgment, movement, personality, language, executive function—includes the:
    • Prefrontal Cortex: Front of frontal lobe—executive function
    • Motor Cortex: Back of frontal lobe - map of our motor receptors—controls skeletal movement
  • Parietal Lobe: Sensations and touch—controls association areas—includes:
    • Somatosensory Cortex: Map of our touch receptors
  • Temporal Lobe: Hearing and face recognition, language
  • Association Areas: Receive input from multiple areas / lobes to integrate info
    • Left hemisphere only—damage to these results in aphasia (damaged speech)
      • Broca’s Area: Inability to produce speech (Broca – Broken speech)
      • Wernicke’s Area: Can’t comprehend speech (Wernicke’s what?)
  • Corpus Callosum: Bundle of nerves that connects the 2 hemispheres—sometimes severed in patients with severe seizures—leads to "split-brain patients"
    • Split-brain experiments:
      • Image shown to R eye processed in L hemi—patient can say what they saw; image shown to L eye processed in R hemi, can’t say what was seen
  • BRAIN PLASTICITY: Brain changes via damage and through experience
  • ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: Sends hormones throughout the body
    • Pituitary Gland: Controlled by hypothalamus releases growth hormones

Brain Research

  • EEG: Shows broad brain activity—not specific—electrical output
  • fMRI: Show brain activity in specific regions, measures oxygen
  • Lesion: Destruction of brain tissue

Diseases & Disorders

  • Multiple Sclerosis: Destruction of myelin sheath, disrupts APs, causes impaired mobility, paralysis, pain
  • Myasthenia Gravis: Acetylcholine blocked, disrupts APs, causes poor motor control and paralysis
  • Blindsight: Caused by lesions to primary visual cortex, ppl can “see” ie catch a ball etc despite being blind—evidence for association areas
  • Prosopagnosia: Face blindness—damage to occipital and/or temporal lobe
  • Broca’s Aphasia: Damage to Broca’s area – stuttered speech
  • Wernicke’s Aphasia: Damage to Wernicke’s – jumbled speech
  • Phantom Limb Pain: Pain from a limb that no longer is there (amputated)—caused by brain plasticity
  • Epilepsy: Seizures—too much / little Glutamate / GABA
  • Alzheimer’s: Destruction of acetylcholine in hippocampus, memory loss

Sleep

  • Consciousness: Awareness of cognitive processes (asleep or awake?)
  • Circadian Rhythms: 24ish hour biological clock of Body temp & sleep
    • Disrupting it makes your internal clock get out of sync (jet lag and shift work do this)
  • Beta Waves: Awake (you betta be awake for the exam)
  • Alpha Waves: High amp., drowsy
  • NREM (non REM) Stages:
    • NREM 1: Light sleep, has hypnagogic sensations (falling feeling)
    • NREM 2: Bursts of sleep spindles
    • NREM 3 Delta Waves: Deep sleep
  • Rapid Eye Movement (REM): Dreaming, cognitive processing
  • Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM occurs in between each cycle. REM lasts longer throughout the night, deep sleep decreases
  • REM is “paradoxical” because your HR and brain is active – but your body is relaxed
  • REM Rebound: After sleep disruptions and/or lack of REM sleep you’ll have more / more intense REM sleep

Dream Theories

  • Activation Synthesis: Brain produces random bursts of energy—stimulating lodged memories in limbic system & brain stem. Dreams start random then develop meaning. Its Neural theory.
  • Consolidation Dream Theory: Brain is combining and processing memories for storage

Necessity of Sleep

  • Consolidation—storage of memories
  • Restoration—helps regenerate the immune system and restore energy

Sleep Disorders

  • Insomnia: Inability to fall / stay asleep (due to stress/anxiety)
  • Somnambulism (sleep walking): Happens during stage 3 - NOT during REM
  • Narcolepsy: Fall into REM out of nowhere – treated with stimulants
  • Sleep Apnea: Stop breathing while asleep (due to obesity usually)
  • REM Behavior Disorder: Malfunction of mechanism that paralyze you during REM

Sensation Intro Vocabulary

  • Sensation: Receive stimulus energy from environment
  • Transduction: Convert that info into APs
  • Perception: Brain interprets the info
  • Absolute Threshold: Detection of signal 50% of time (is it there)
  • Just Noticeable Difference: Can tell the difference between a stronger and weaker stimulus or two similar things (coke vs Pepsi, did it get stronger?)
  • WEBER’S LAW: Two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion(the stronger thing, the more you have to add to tell the difference)

Cognition

  • Synesthesia: "Disorder" where your senses blend (see sounds, etc.)
  • Sensory Adaptation: Diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation (ex. nose blindness)– sensory receptors respond less (get tired)

Visual System

  • Lens: Focuses light on retina
  • Retina: Contains photoreceptors (rods/cones/ ganglion cells)
  • Fovea: Area of best vision(cones here)
  • Rods: Black/white, dark adaptation; way more rods than cones; located along sides of retina
  • Cones: Color, bright light (red, green, blue) (only in the fovea)
  • Ganglion Cells: Create optic nerve (opponent process theory happens here)
  • Blind Spot: Occurs where the optic nerve leaves the eye

Visual System Vocabulary

  • Accommodation: Lens changes curvature to focus images on retina
  • Nearsightedness: Better vision near
  • Farsightedness: Better vision far

Theories of Color Vision

  • Trichromatic: Three cones for receiving color
    • Blue – short waves
    • Green – medium waves
    • Red – long waves
  • Opponent Process: Complementary colors are processed in ganglion cells—explains why we see an after image
    • Red/green
    • Blue/yellow
    • Black/white
  • Color Deficiency:
    • Damage to, or missing - cones or ganglion cells
    • Red/green is most common
    • Dichromatism – missing 1 cone
    • Monochromatism – only have rods

Auditory System

  • **Properties of Sound: **
    • Wavelength: Distance between peaks - pitch
      • Long waves = low pitch
      • Narrow waves = high pitch
    • Amplitude: Height of wave—loudness
      • Short waves = soft
      • Tall waves = loud

Theories of Hearing

All occur in the cochlea
* Place Theory: Location where hair cells bends determines sound (high pitches)
* Frequency Theory: Rate at which action potentials are sent determines sound (low pitches)
* Volley Theory: Groups of neurons fire APs out of sync

Other Hearing Information

  • Sound Localization: Which ear gets the waves first tells location of sound
  • Conduction Deafness: Damage to bones of ear and ear drum cause hearing loss
  • Sensorineural: Damage to cochlea, hairs in cochlea, or nerve—usually due to old age and loud noise

Other Senses

  • Vestibular: Sense of balance (semicircular canals in the inner ear)
  • Kinesthetic: Sense of body position & movement without looking
  • Pain: Gate-control theory: we have a “gate” to control how much pain is experience. Pain is both mental and physical
    • Hot: activation of warm and cold receptors
  • Taste (Gustation): 6 taste receptors: bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory), oleogustus (fatty/oily)
    • Tongue, mouth, and brain process taste
    • Density of taste receptors makes people super tasters, medium tasters, or nontasters
    • Sensory interaction creates taste—without smell taste isn’t as strong
  • Smell (Olfaction): Only sense that does NOT route through the thalamus
    • Pheromones produce chemical signals within a species for attraction

Perception

  • Top-Down Processing: Whole idea (prior expectations) à smaller parts (painting with faces)
  • Bottom-Up Processing: Smaller Parts (sensory info) à Whole idea (dog of bunch of dots)
  • Schemas: Preexisting mental concept of how something should look (like a restaurant)
  • Perceptual Set: Tendency to see something as part of a group—speeds up signal processing
  • GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: Whole is greater than the sum of its parts

Gestalt Principles

  • Figure/Ground: Organize information into figures objects (figures) that stand apart from surrounds (back ground)
  • Closure: Mentally fill in gaps
  • Proximity: Group things together that appear near each other
  • Similarity: Group things together based off of looks
  • Constancies: Recognize that objects do not physically change despite changes in sensory input (size, shape, brightness)
  • Apparent Movement: Objects can appear moving when they aren’t (flip books, blinking lights)
  • Selective Attention: Focus on one thing and block out other things—can result in:
    • Inattentional Blindness: Failure to notice something added because you’re so focused on another task (gorilla video)
    • Change Blindness: Fail to notice a change in the scene (curtain changes color)
    • Cocktail Party Effect: Notice your name across the room when its spoken, when you weren’t previously paying attention
  • BINOCULAR DEPTH CUES: (how both eyes make up a 3D image)
    • Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slightly different on each retina, location of image helps us determine depth
    • Convergence: Eyes strain more (looking inward) as objects draw nearer
  • MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES: (how we form a 3D image from a 2D image)
    • Interposition: Overlapping images appear closer
    • Relative Size: 2 objects that are usually similar in size, the smaller one is further away
    • Linear Perspective: Parallel lines converge with distance (think railroad tracks)
    • Relative Clarity: Hazy objects appear further away
    • Texture Gradient: Coarser objects=closer

Thinking & Problem Solving

  • Concepts: Mental categories used to group objects, events, characteristics
    • Prototypes: All instances of a concept are compared to an ideal example
  • Algorithms: Step by step strategies that guarantee a solution (formula)
  • Heuristics: Short cut strategy
    • Representative Heuristic: Make judgment based on your experience (like a stereotype)– assume someone must be a librarian because they’re quiet
    • Availability Heuristic: Make a judgement based on the first thing that pops in your head (assume planes are dangerous because crash in the news)
  • Metacognition: Thinking about (reflecting upon) the way you think
  • Mental Set: Keep using one strategy to solve a problem—cannot think outside the box
  • Functional Fixedness: Can only see one (common) use for an item– cannot think outside of the box
  • Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continue something because you’re already invested (might as well finish it now…)– when stopping would be more beneficial
  • Gambler’s Fallacy: Believe something is more likely to happen because its “due”– the dice have no memory
  • Divergent Thinking: Ability to think about many different things at once (Creative)—hindered by func. fixedness
  • Convergent Thinking: Limits creativity—one answer
  • Executive Functioning: Generating, organizing, planning, carrying out goal directed behaviors

Memory

Encoding

  • Automatic Encoding: Requires no effort (what did you have for breakfast?)
  • Effortful Encoding: Requires work (school)
  • Levels (depth) of Processing: the more emphasis on MEANING the deeper the processing, and the better remembered
    • Structural Encoding (shallow): Emphasis on physical structural
    • Phonemic Encoding (intermediate): Emphasis on what words sound like
    • Semantic Encoding (deep): = emphasis on meaning of the words
  • Elaborative Rehearsal: Strategies to enhance encoding like below:
    • Imagery: Attaching images to information makes it easier to remember
    • Dual Encoding: Using multiple methods of processing to remember (photo + words)
    • Chunking: Break info into smaller units to aid in memory (like a phone #)
    • Mnemonics: Shortcuts to help us remember info easier
      • Acronyms: Using letter to remember something (PEMDAS)
      • Method of Loci: Using locations to remember a list of items in order
  • Context Dependent Memory: Where you learn the info you best remember the info (scuba divers testing)
  • State Dependent Memory: The physical state you were in when learning is the way you should be when testing (study high, test high)
  • Mood Congruent Memory: Remember happy events when happy, sad when sad
  • Forgetting Curve: Recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten
  • Distributed Practice (Spacing Effect): Review a little every night (resets forgetting curve )
  • Massed Practice: Cramming
  • Testing Effect: Quizzing over material periodically

Storage

  • Multi-Store Model: Sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory model
  • Sensory Memory: Stores all incoming stimuli that you receive (first you have to pay attention)
    • Iconic Memory: Visual memory, lasts 0.3 seconds
    • Echoic Memory: Auditory memory, lasts 2-3 seconds
  • Short Term Memory: Info passes from sensory memory to STM—lasts 30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items
    • Maintenance Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets the clock
  • Long Term Memory: Lasts a life time
    • Explicit: Require conscious effort:
      • Episodic: Events
      • Semantic: Facts
    • Implicit: Automatic, no effort needed:
      • Classical conditioning
      • Priming: Info that is seen earlier “primes” you to remember something later on
      • Procedural: Skills (muscle memory)
  • Working Memory Model splits STM into 2 – visual spatial memory (from iconic mem) and phonological loop (from echoic mem). A “central executive” puts it together before passing it to LTM

Types of Memory

  • Prospective Memory: Remembering you need to do something (pick up milk)
  • Autobiographical Memory: Memory for your personal history—combo of episodic and semantic

Memory Organization

  • Hierarchies: Memory is stored according to a clusters of related info
  • Categorically: Stored in categories
  • Semantic Networks: Webs of semi-related info
    • Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: Can’t remember the name of something because you’re stuck elsewhere in your semantic network
  • Schemas: Frameworks that organize info
    • Assimilation: Incorporate new info into existing schema Cat is a dog because 4 legs.
    • Accommodation: Adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information Cat and dogs = different.

Memory Storage

  • Acetylcholine neurons in the hippocampus for episodic and semantic
  • Memories before age 3 are unreliable (infantile amnesia)– hippocampus still forming
  • Cerebellum for implicit / procedural memories
  • Amygdala for emotional memories
  • Frontal lobe for encoding and retrieval
  • Long-Term Potentiation: Neural basis of memory—connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (more firing of neurons)
    • Memory Consolidation: Memories are strengthened and made more stable with time

Retreival

  • Serial Position Effect: Tendency to remember the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of the list best
    • Primacy happens because the info got moved to long term memory
    • Recency because its still in your short term
  • Recall: Remember what you’ve been told without cues (essays)
  • Recognition: Remember what you’ve been told with cues (MCQ) (this one is better)
  • Repressed Memories: Unconsciously buried memories to defend the ego (psychodynamic approach)
  • Encoding Failure: Forget info because you never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the first place (which is the real penny)
  • Proactive Interference OLD info blocks new info
  • Retroactive Interference NEW info blocks old info
  • Constructive Memory: The way we update memories with new memories, associations, feelings—memory is unreliable
  • Source Amnesia: Forget who told you, where you heard it
  • Misinformation Effect: Distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation (lost in the mall, Disney land)
  • Framing: The way a question is framed impacts how info is recalled / perceived (how fast were the cars going when they smashed)
  • Imagination Inflation: People are more confident an event happened after imagining it (even though it didn’t happen)
  • Anterograde Amnesia: Amnesia moves forward (forget new info—50 first dates)
  • Retrograde Amnesia: Amnesia moves backwards (forget old info)

Intelligence & Achievement

  • Intelligence theories are split:
    • Single form of intelligence (g factor) - general intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilities (typical IQ tests of today). If you’re smart in one area you’re smart in other areas too
    • Multiple intelligences – intelligence has lots of types, not just math/language. Can be high/low in areas

First IQ Test

*Used a formula and is where the traditional value of “IQ” comes from
* Chronological Age = actual age
* Mental Age = tested age compared to other of that age
* 100 is average, SD = 15
* Use for IQ scores /tests today: educational services, diagnostic testing for learning disabilities, GT identification

  • Psychometrics – field of psych & education for creating tests

Standardization

  • Test is given using consistent procedures and environments, and graded the same (SAT, AP exams)
  • Tests Should be Reliable: Same results over time (consistent)
    • Split-Half Reliability: Compare two halves of the test
    • Test-Retest Reliability: Use the same test on 2 different occasions
  • Tests Should be Valid: Test is accurate – measures what it is intended to
    • Construct Validity: Test measures what you want it to (an IQ test actually measures IQ)
    • Predictive Validity: Test is able to accurately predict a trait (high math scores predicts good engineer)
  • Standardized tests establish a normal distribution
  • Standard dev are used to compare scores. Standard deviation measures how much the scores vary from the mean. Percentages below NEVER change.
  • Types of Tests:
    • Aptitude: Predicts your abilities to learn a new skill (ASVAB)
    • Achievement: Tests what you know(AP)

Historical Issues with Intelligence Testing

  • Nature vs. Nurture Influence on IQ:
    • Genetics: MZ twins have similar IQ, adopted kids more similar to biological parents
    • Environment: Early neglect leads to lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ
  • Personal and sociocultural biases impact interpretation of results
  • Poverty and education inequalities negative impact scores
  • Eugenics – study of how to “improve” the gene pool by discouraging (sterilizing or otherwise) individuals from reproducing
  • Culture fair tests – IQ tests have been used to refuse / limit access to jobs, military, education, and immigration
  • Need to focus on non-language skills & minimize cultural specific questions
  • Stereotype Threat: Feel at risk of conforming to the negative stereotype about your group - influences your behaviors, cognitions
  • Stereotype Lift – do better on a test when comparing self to other groups with negative stereotypes

Development and Learning

  • FLYNN Effect: IQ has steadily risen over the past 80 years – probably due to education standards, healthcare
  • Fixed Mindset: Belief intelligence is fixed from birth – leads to less effort
  • Growth Mindset: Belief you can develop abilities through work and determination – leads to more effort

Development

“3 thematic issues” in Dev. Psych:
* Nature / Nurture: (genes or environment)
* Continuous / Discontinuous:(gradual dev over time or dev. In stage)
* Stability / Change: (traits persist, unchanging or traits change as we age)

  • CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY: people of different ages at the same point in time
    • Adv: inexpensive & quick
    • Disadv: can be differences due to generational gap
  • LONGITUDINAL STUDY: studies same people over time
    • Adv: eliminates groups (cohort) differences, lots of detail
    • Disadv: expensive, time consuming, high drop out rates

Physical Development

  • Prenatal Development:
    • Teratogens: External agents that can cause abnormal prenatal development (alcohol, drugs, etc)
    • Illness, mutations, hormones, and environment can impact prenatal development
  • Physical Development:
    • Maturation: Natural course of development, occurs no matter what (walking)
    • Gross Movement: Large muscles, strength and coordination (walking) – develops first
    • Fine Movement: Small muscles, precision and controlled (writing)
    • Reflexes: Innate responses we’re born with - that go away with time
      • Rooting – turning of face towards a finger when touched on the cheek (food response
      • Other reflexes include - sucking, swallowing, grasping, Moro (startle), stepping, Babinski (toes spread when foot touched)
    • Eyes have the most limited development, takes till 1 year
      • Visual Cliff: Babies have to learn depth perception, so they will cross a “cliff”
    • Critical Period(sensitive period): – Limited time where something HAS to be developed or it won’t happen (language for humans)
      • Imprinting: Birds believe the first thing they see after hatching is mom

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